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Anthropologist, professor at the Federal University of São Paulo

Violência de torcidas organizadas ganha cada vez mais espaço na academia (Jornal da Ciência)

JC e-mail 4577, de 05 de Setembro de 2012.

Clarissa Vasconcellos – Jornal da Ciência

Com a proximidade da Copa do Mundo no Brasil em 2014, a violência das torcidas organizadas ganha foco e atrai o interesse de pesquisadores.

Nas últimas semanas, o noticiário voltou a se encher de notícias relacionadas a conflitos entre torcedores que vêm demonstrando pouco espírito esportivo dentro e fora dos estádios. A recente morte de um torcedor e as brigas entre as torcidas organizadas vêm sendo motivo de debates e sanções. Estudiosos que analisam o fenômeno há décadas, dentro e fora do País, trazem novos dados sobre o problema.

É o caso de Heloísa Reis, pesquisadora e professora da Faculdade de Educação Física (FEF) da Unicamp, que investiga o tema há 17 anos. Uma de suas motivações foi uma experiência pessoal: ex-jogadora de futebol, ela sentiu na pele a hostilidade dos torcedores masculinos, algo muito comum na década de 80. “Minha indignação com aquela violência simbólica fez com que eu tivesse grande interesse em entender a atuação dos torcedores e o que leva eles a xingar os jogadores e brigar entre si”, conta Heloísa ao Jornal da Ciência.

Reconhecida internacionalmente – acaba de voltar de Londres, onde foi convidada para trabalhar com a polícia durante as Olimpíadas -, Heloísa conta que o assunto é um tema social muito relevante, já que, além de ter provocado um elevado número de mortos nos últimos anos, trata-se de uma situação que muitas vezes mobiliza a cidade, especialmente no grande raio que abrange os estádios. “Há uma tensão dos moradores, toda segurança pública fica envolvida e o transporte público é afetado”, enumera.

De acordo com dados divulgados, no dia 30 de agosto, pelo Grupamento Especial de Policiamento em Estádios (Gepe), de um ano para cá, mais de 370 torcedores foram presos no Rio de Janeiro – 83 apenas na semana passada. As causas foram promoção de tumulto, baderna e lesão corporal no caminho ou na volta dos estádios. Além disso, a Polícia Civil fluminense anunciou a criação do Núcleo de Apoio aos Grandes Eventos (Nage), para combater as ações criminosas promovidas por integrantes de torcidas organizadas de clubes de futebol.

Semelhanças e diferenças – Além de estudar a violência no futebol brasileiro, Heloísa já pesquisou o problema em outros países, como a Espanha e a Inglaterra. Em comum, ela afirma que os torcedores violentos de todos os países (incluindo os hooligans, considerados os mais violentos desse grupo de indivíduos) em geral são homens e jovens.

“A questão surge com mais evidência no Reino Unido na década de 80, mas já havia esse tipo de violência no Brasil e na Espanha. Dessa época para cá, podemos verificar também um aumento na idade dos homens, pois cada vez mais a ‘adolescência’ é estendida, para inclusive além dos 30 anos, por exemplo”, relata. Heloísa vê como traços comuns entre os hooligans estrangeiros e brasileiros o fato de serem homens jovens que se satisfazem brigando e correndo risco, utilizando o enfrentamento e o confronto (tanto com torcedores rivais quanto com a polícia) para terem prazer. “Também buscam uma autoafirmação masculina; não à toa guardam a vestimenta do time adversário como troféu de conquista”, completa.

Porém, os países guardam algumas diferenças significativas entre seus torcedores violentos. Uma das principais é que em diversas sociedades mais desenvolvidas o acesso a armas de fogo é difícil, o que diminui drasticamente o número de mortes. “Brasil e Argentina são os países com mais mortes no futebol na América do Sul pelo acesso a armas de fogo. A entrada delas, principalmente nos anos 80, fez com que aumentasse muito o numero de mortes aqui”, conta, lembrando que, em toda história do futebol francês, por exemplo, houve três mortes por violência de torcedores, enquanto no Brasil o número atual é de 69 falecimentos.

Ela também destaca uma diferença entre o “código de conduta” de torcedores europeus e latino-americanos. “Lá, a intenção não é levar o inimigo à morte e sim fazê-lo sofrer”, conta. Outro dado interessante apurado por Heloísa no Brasil, mais especificamente nas torcidas organizadas de São Paulo, é que 85% dos jovens de 15 a 24 anos pesquisados moram com a família, “o que contraria um discurso da mídia de que as famílias precisam voltar aos estádios”, afirma, já que lares estruturados não são garantia para se evitar esse tipo de conflito.

Álcool e violência – Heloísa explica que, como o futebol se tornou um “produto valiosíssimo na economia mundial”, “há um grande interesse de países mais desenvolvidos em ter uma política de prevenção para que se garanta o lazer seguro de qualidade”. Isso passa pelo controle de bebidas alcoólicas nos estádios, de acordo com a pesquisadora.

“Em todos os países onde se fez política de prevenção da violência relacionada a futebol, em algum momento o álcool foi proibido, já que todos esses países verificaram que a maioria das pessoas detidas estava sob efeito do álcool”, informa. Heloísa lamenta que tenha prevalecido, para a Copa de 2014, “o interesse econômico das cervejarias” na chamada Lei da Copa. “Acho temerário, estou muito preocupada”, alerta.

A pesquisadora também se inquieta com o fato de algumas autoridades pensarem que é um exagero se preocupar com torcedores violentos durante a Copa, diante da alegação que não estarão envolvidos torcedores de grandes clubes. Ela relembra os conflitos que aconteceram durante a Copa da Alemanha, em 2006, que geraram inclusive um documentário da rede inglesa BBC.

No dia 30 de agosto, o governo brasileiro divulgou o planejamento estratégico de segurança que será aplicado na Copa do Mundo de 2014, no qual considera os torcedores violentos, tanto nacionais como estrangeiros, como um dos fatores de risco. O plano, publicado no Diário Oficial (http://www.in.gov.br/visualiza/index.jsp?data=30/08/2012&jornal=1&pagina=45&totalArquivos=120), foi elaborado pela Secretaria Extraordinária para a Segurança de Grandes Eventos e inclui todas as ações que serão implementadas para garantir a segurança da competição.

O texto detalha, por exemplo, os responsáveis pela segurança do evento, as medidas já pensadas, os objetivos perseguidos, os recursos investidos, os preparativos, a cooperação com outros países e a interação com as firmas privadas contratadas pela Fifa para a segurança. A instalação de circuitos internos de televisão e a identificação dos torcedores são vistas como algumas medidas de sucesso utilizadas nas competições europeias.

“Por aqui existe um grande risco, especialmente entre embates de Inglaterra e Argentina ou Brasil e Argentina”, pontua Heloísa. Ela acredita que, no caso de jogo entre esses países, o ideal seria deslocar a partida para o Norte ou Nordeste do Brasil, dificultando o acesso. Outra medida de prevenção, observada in loco por ela nas Olimpíadas de Londres, seria realizar um trabalho conjunto com todos os órgãos de segurança nacionais. “Todas as organizações que deveriam prestar algum socorro ou assistência estavam concentradas da mesma sala. Os comandos saíam do mesmo lugar; foi tudo muito orquestrado”, relembra.

“Virão hooligans para o Brasil com certeza. Podem vir menos devido à distância em que se encontra o Brasil, mas virão. Eles se aproveitam do dia do jogo, seja do seu time ou de seu país, para brigar. A competição deles é paralela ao jogo do campo”, conclui.

Bits of Mystery DNA, Far From ‘Junk,’ Play Crucial Role (N.Y.Times)

By GINA KOLATA

Published: September 5, 2012

Among the many mysteries of human biology is why complex diseases like diabeteshigh blood pressure and psychiatric disorders are so difficult to predict and, often, to treat. An equally perplexing puzzle is why one individual gets a disease like cancer or depression, while an identical twin remains perfectly healthy.

Béatrice de Géa for The New York Times. “It is like opening a wiring closet and seeing a hairball of wires,” Mark Gerstein of Yale University said of the DNA intricacies.

Now scientists have discovered a vital clue to unraveling these riddles. The human genome is packed with at least four million gene switches that reside in bits of DNA that once were dismissed as “junk” but that turn out to play critical roles in controlling how cells, organs and other tissues behave. The discovery, considered a major medical and scientific breakthrough, has enormous implications for human health because many complex diseases appear to be caused by tiny changes in hundreds of gene switches.

The findings, which are the fruit of an immense federal project involving 440 scientists from 32 laboratories around the world, will have immediate applications for understanding how alterations in the non-gene parts of DNA contribute to human diseases, which may in turn lead to new drugs. They can also help explain how the environment can affect disease risk. In the case of identical twins, small changes in environmental exposure can slightly alter gene switches, with the result that one twin gets a disease and the other does not.

As scientists delved into the “junk” — parts of the DNA that are not actual genes containing instructions for proteins — they discovered a complex system that controls genes. At least 80 percent of this DNA is active and needed. The result of the work is an annotated road map of much of this DNA, noting what it is doing and how. It includes the system of switches that, acting like dimmer switches for lights, control which genes are used in a cell and when they are used, and determine, for instance, whether a cell becomes a liver cell or a neuron.

“It’s Google Maps,” said Eric Lander, president of the Broad Institute, a joint research endeavor of Harvard and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In contrast, the project’s predecessor, the Human Genome Project, which determined the entire sequence of human DNA, “was like getting a picture of Earth from space,” he said. “It doesn’t tell you where the roads are, it doesn’t tell you what traffic is like at what time of the day, it doesn’t tell you where the good restaurants are, or the hospitals or the cities or the rivers.”

The new result “is a stunning resource,” said Dr. Lander, who was not involved in the research that produced it but was a leader in the Human Genome Project. “My head explodes at the amount of data.”

The discoveries were published on Wednesday in six papers in the journal Nature and in 24 papers in Genome Research and Genome Biology. In addition, The Journal of Biological Chemistry is publishing six review articles, and Science is publishing yet another article.

Human DNA is “a lot more active than we expected, and there are a lot more things happening than we expected,” said Ewan Birney of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory-European Bioinformatics Institute, a lead researcher on the project.

In one of the Nature papers, researchers link the gene switches to a range of human diseases — multiple sclerosislupusrheumatoid arthritisCrohn’s diseaseceliac disease — and even to traits like height. In large studies over the past decade, scientists found that minor changes in human DNA sequences increase the risk that a person will get those diseases. But those changes were in the junk, now often referred to as the dark matter — they were not changes in genes — and their significance was not clear. The new analysis reveals that a great many of those changes alter gene switches and are highly significant.

“Most of the changes that affect disease don’t lie in the genes themselves; they lie in the switches,” said Michael Snyder, a Stanford University researcher for the project, called Encode, for Encyclopedia of DNA Elements.

And that, said Dr. Bradley Bernstein, an Encode researcher at Massachusetts General Hospital, “is a really big deal.” He added, “I don’t think anyone predicted that would be the case.”

The discoveries also can reveal which genetic changes are important in cancer, and why. As they began determining the DNA sequences of cancer cells, researchers realized that most of the thousands of DNA changes in cancer cells were not in genes; they were in the dark matter. The challenge is to figure out which of those changes are driving the cancer’s growth.

“These papers are very significant,” said Dr. Mark A. Rubin, a prostate cancer genomics researcher at Weill Cornell Medical College. Dr. Rubin, who was not part of the Encode project, added, “They will definitely have an impact on our medical research on cancer.”

In prostate cancer, for example, his group found mutations in important genes that are not readily attacked by drugs. But Encode, by showing which regions of the dark matter control those genes, gives another way to attack them: target those controlling switches.

Dr. Rubin, who also used the Google Maps analogy, explained: “Now you can follow the roads and see the traffic circulation. That’s exactly the same way we will use these data in cancer research.” Encode provides a road map with traffic patterns for alternate ways to go after cancer genes, he said.

Dr. Bernstein said, “This is a resource, like the human genome, that will drive science forward.”

The system, though, is stunningly complex, with many redundancies. Just the idea of so many switches was almost incomprehensible, Dr. Bernstein said.

There also is a sort of DNA wiring system that is almost inconceivably intricate.

“It is like opening a wiring closet and seeing a hairball of wires,” said Mark Gerstein, an Encode researcher from Yale. “We tried to unravel this hairball and make it interpretable.”

There is another sort of hairball as well: the complex three-dimensional structure of DNA. Human DNA is such a long strand — about 10 feet of DNA stuffed into a microscopic nucleus of a cell — that it fits only because it is tightly wound and coiled around itself. When they looked at the three-dimensional structure — the hairball — Encode researchers discovered that small segments of dark-matter DNA are often quite close to genes they control. In the past, when they analyzed only the uncoiled length of DNA, those controlling regions appeared to be far from the genes they affect.

The project began in 2003, as researchers began to appreciate how little they knew about human DNA. In recent years, some began to find switches in the 99 percent of human DNA that is not genes, but they could not fully characterize or explain what a vast majority of it was doing.

The thought before the start of the project, said Thomas Gingeras, an Encode researcher from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, was that only 5 to 10 percent of the DNA in a human being was actually being used.

The big surprise was not only that almost all of the DNA is used but also that a large proportion of it is gene switches. Before Encode, said Dr. John Stamatoyannopoulos, a University of Washington scientist who was part of the project, “if you had said half of the genome and probably more has instructions for turning genes on and off, I don’t think people would have believed you.”

By the time the National Human Genome Research Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health, embarked on Encode, major advances in DNA sequencing and computational biology had made it conceivable to try to understand the dark matter of human DNA. Even so, the analysis was daunting — the researchers generated 15 trillion bytes of raw data. Analyzing the data required the equivalent of more than 300 years of computer time.

Just organizing the researchers and coordinating the work was a huge undertaking. Dr. Gerstein, one of the project’s leaders, has produced a diagram of the authors with their connections to one another. It looks nearly as complicated as the wiring diagram for the human DNA switches. Now that part of the work is done, and the hundreds of authors have written their papers.

“There is literally a flotilla of papers,” Dr. Gerstein said. But, he added, more work has yet to be done — there are still parts of the genome that have not been figured out.

That, though, is for the next stage of Encode.

*   *   *

Published: September 5, 2012

Rethinking ‘Junk’ DNA

A large group of scientists has found that so-called junk DNA, which makes up most of the human genome, does much more than previously thought.

GENES: Each human cell contains about 10 feet of DNA, coiled into a dense tangle. But only a very small percentage of DNA encodes genes, which control inherited traits like eye color, blood type and so on.

JUNK DNA: Stretches of DNA around and between genes seemed to do nothing, and were called junk DNA. But now researchers think that the junk DNA contains a large number of tiny genetic switches, controlling how genes function within the cell.

REGULATION: The many genetic regulators seem to be arranged in a complex and redundant hierarchy. Scientists are only beginning to map and understand this network, which regulates how cells, organs and tissues behave.

DISEASE: Errors or mutations in genetic switches can disrupt the network and lead to a range of diseases. The new findings will spur further research and may lead to new drugs and treatments.

 

Evolution could explain the placebo effect (New Scientist)

06 September 2012 by Colin Barras

Magazine issue 2881

ON THE face of it, the placebo effect makes no sense. Someone suffering from a low-level infection will recover just as nicely whether they take an active drug or a simple sugar pill. This suggests people are able to heal themselves unaided – so why wait for a sugar pill to prompt recovery?

New evidence from a computer model offers a possible evolutionary explanation, and suggests that the immune system has an on-off switch controlled by the mind.

It all starts with the observation that something similar to the placebo effect occurs in many animals, says Peter Trimmer, a biologist at the University of Bristol, UK. For instance, Siberian hamsters do little to fight an infection if the lights above their lab cage mimic the short days and long nights of winter. But changing the lighting pattern to give the impression of summer causes them to mount a full immune response.

Likewise, those people who think they are taking a drug but are really receiving a placebo can have a response which is twice that of those who receive no pills (Annals of Family Medicinedoi.org/cckm8b). In Siberian hamsters and people, intervention creates a mental cue that kick-starts the immune response.

There is a simple explanation, says Trimmer: the immune system is costly to run – so costly that a strong and sustained response could dangerously drain an animal’s energy reserves. In other words, as long as the infection is not lethal, it pays to wait for a sign that fighting it will not endanger the animal in other ways.

Nicholas Humphrey, a retired psychologist formerly at the London School of Economics, first proposed this idea a decade ago, but only now has evidence to support it emerged from a computer model designed by Trimmer and his colleagues.

According to Humphrey’s picture, the Siberian hamster subconsciously acts on a cue that it is summer because food supplies to sustain an immune response are plentiful at that time of year. We subconsciously respond to treatment – even a sham one – because it comes with assurances that it will weaken the infection, allowing our immune response to succeed rapidly without straining the body’s resources.

Trimmer’s simulation is built on this assumption – that animals need to spend vital resources on fighting low-level infections. The model revealed that, in challenging environments, animals lived longer and sired more offspring if they endured infections without mounting an immune response. In more favourable environments, it was best for animals to mount an immune response and return to health as quickly as possible (Evolution and Human Behavior, doi.org/h8p). The results show a clear evolutionary benefit to switching the immune system on and off depending on environmental conditions.

“I’m pleased to see that my theory stands up to computational modelling,” says Humphrey. If the idea is right, he adds, it means we have misunderstood the nature of placebos. Farming and other innovations in the past 10,000 years mean that many people have a stable food supply and can safely mount a full immune response at any time – but our subconscious switch has not yet adapted to this. A placebo tricks the mind into thinking it is an ideal time to switch on an immune response, says Humphrey.

Paul Enck at the University of Tübingen in Germany says it is an intriguing idea, but points out that there are many different placebo responses, depending on the disease. It is unlikely that a single mechanism explains them all, he says.

Ecosystems Cope With Stress More Effectively the Greater the Biodiversity (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 5, 2012) — Ecosystems with a high degree of biodiversity can cope with more stress, such as higher temperatures or increasing salt concentrations, than those with less biodiversity. They can also maintain their services for longer, as botanists and ecologists from the universities of Zurich and Göttingen have discovered. Their study provides the first evidence of the relationship between stress intensity and ecosystem functioning.

Higher average temperatures and increasing salt concentrations are stress factors that many ecosystems face today in the wake of climate change. However, do all ecosystems react to stress in the same way and what impact does stress have on ecosystem services, such as biomass production? Botanists and ecologists from the universities of Zurich and Göttingen demonstrate that a high level of biodiversity aids stress resistance.

Higher number of species leads to greater stress resistance

The scientists studied a total of 64 species of single-celled microalgae from the SAG Culture Collection of Algae in Göttingen. These are at the bottom of the food chain and absorb environmentally harmful COvia photosynthesis. “The more species of microalgae there are in a system, the more robust the system is under moderate stress compared to those with fewer species,” says first author Bastian Steudel, explaining one of the results. Systems with a higher number of species can thus keep their biomass production stable for longer than those with less biodiversity.

In all, the researchers studied six different intensities of two stress gradients. In the case of very high intensities, the positive effects of biodiversity decreased or ceased altogether. However, increasing stress in systems with few species had a considerably more negative impact than in those with high biodiversity levels. “The study shows that a high degree of biodiversity under stress is especially important to maintain biomass production,” says Steudel’s PhD supervisor Michael Kessler, summing up the significance of the research project.

Journal Reference:

  1. Bastian Steudel, Andy Hector, Thomas Friedl, Christian Löfke, Maike Lorenz, Moritz Wesche, Michael Kessler.Biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning change along environmental stress gradientsEcology Letters, 2012; DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01863.x

Salamanders Display Survival Techniques in Period of Extreme Drought (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 5, 2012) — The stress of drought is acutely felt by aquatic animals such as salamanders. The extreme drought in the southeastern United States in 2007-2008 provided an opportunity to study how salamanders react and survive during such dry conditions. It also gave us clues as to how salamanders and other aquatic organisms may react to global warming.

The journal Herpetologica reports on a 5-year study of the Northern Dusky Salamander, common to eastern North America. From 2005 to 2009, including two severe drought years, the presence of salamanders was recorded at 17 first-order streams in the Piedmont region of North Carolina. Data on the amphibians’ presence were established by capturing, marking, and recapturing salamanders over the course of the study.

Researchers found that the adult salamanders had a high rate of survival over the course of the study, even during the drought years. The abundance of larval salamanders, however, decreased by an average of 30 percent during the drought. This differential mortality suggests a between-generation survival strategy, with the high survival rate of adults mitigating the effect of drought on the numbers of larvae.

During the extreme drought, water levels reached a 110-year low. Many streams were dry for periods of 2 to 3 months at a time, reduced to pools rather than flowing water. These conditions brought about another survival strategy, temporary migration of adult salamanders — at twice the rate of non-drought years. They moved from stream beds to underground or high-humidity refuges. Crayfish burrows and rocks provided shelter from the hot and dry conditions.

Because climate change is expected to bring warming trends and more drought, this study offers implications for the survival of stream-dwelling salamanders. An increase in the mortality of larvae, or early metamorphosis, could mean declines in salamander fitness and size.

Journal Reference:

  1. Steven J. Price, Robert A. Browne, and Michael E. Dorcas.Resistance and Resilience of A Stream Salamander To Supraseasonal DroughtHerpetologica:, September 2012; 68 (3): 312-323 DOI: 10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-11-00084.1

Mulheres são mais vulneráveis aos impactos das mudanças climáticas globais (Fapesp)

Fatores socioeconômicos e culturais potencializam as vulnerabilidades do sexo feminino aos desastres provocados pelos eventos climáticos extremos, avalia pesquisadora mexicana que integra o IPCC (foto:Eduardo Cesar/FAPESP)

06/09/2012

Por Elton Alisson

Agência FAPESP – As mulheres e meninas representam atualmente 72% do total de pessoas que vivem em condições de extrema pobreza no mundo. Em função disso e da combinação de uma série de outros fatores socioeconômicos e culturais, elas representam hoje as maiores vítimas de desastres provocados por eventos climáticos extremos, como inundações e furacões.

Os dados foram apresentados pela médica e antropóloga mexicana Úrsula Oswald Spring durante o workshop “Gestão dos riscos dos extremos climáticos e desastres na América do Sul – O que podemos aprender com o Relatório Especial do IPCC sobre os extremos?”, realizado em agosto pela FAPESP, em São Paulo.

Professora da Universidade Nacional Autônoma do México, a pesquisadora mexicana, que é membro do IPCC, explica em entrevista concedida à Agência FAPESP as razões e quais ações são necessárias para diminuir a vulnerabilidade das mulheres e meninas aos impactos das mudanças climáticas.

Agência FAPESP – Quais são os grupos humanos mais vulneráveis aos impactos das mudanças climáticas globais?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – Primeiro, as mulheres e meninas. Em segundo lugar, os grupos indígenas refugiados em comunidades com línguas e culturas diferentes das suas. E em terceiro todas as pessoas que vivem em cidades em pobreza extrema, em zonas de alto risco e de violência, sem apoio governamental, ilegais, sem emprego e expostas às intempéries climáticas. Coincidentemente, esses três grupos humanos também são os mais discriminados. Há um problema de discriminação estrutural e uma combinação catastrófica de fatores socioeconômicos, ambientais e culturais que potencializam as vulnerabilidades desses três grupos humanos aos impactos das mudanças climáticas.

Agência FAPESP – O que torna as mulheres e meninas mais vulneráveis aos impactos das mudanças climáticas?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – Mundialmente, elas representam 72% dos pobres extremos e, sem recursos financeiros, é muito difícil enfrentar os impactos dos eventos climáticos extremos. Além disso, as mulheres foram educadas a cuidar dos outros e, por isso, assumimos o papel de “mãe de todos”. Esse processo, que chamo de teoria das representações sociais, também nos torna mais vulneráveis, porque temos o papel de proteger primeiramente os outros, para depois nos preocuparmos conosco. Por trás de tudo isso também persiste há milhares de anos um sistema político excludente, reforçado por todas as crenças religiosas, denominado sistema patriarcal, que preceitua a autoridade de um ser – o homem –, resultando em muita violência, exclusão e discriminação contra as mulheres. O capitalismo, por sua vez, se aproveitou do sistema patriarcal e construiu um sistema vertical, excludente, autoritário e violento, que permitiu que hoje 1,2 mil homens comandem a metade de todo o planeta e que as mulheres tivessem pouco poder de decisão e de veto em questões que lhes afetam diretamente.

Agência FAPESP – Diante desta realidade, o que é preciso fazer para diminuir a vulnerabilidade das mulheres e meninas aos impactos dos eventos climáticos extremos?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – Não vale a pena destruir, por exemplo, essa capacidade das mulheres em querer ser a mãe de todos. Mas é necessário treiná-las para que esse processo de cuidar dos outros seja mais eficiente e que não seja realizado ao custo de sua própria vida, mas que possa beneficiar todo um conjunto de pessoas, incluindo ela e suas filhas. E isto implica em mais condições para que possam ter maior poder de decisão.

Agência FAPESP – Como seria possível realizar esse processo?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – Sobretudo, possibilitando o maior acesso das mulheres à educação. De acordo com o Banco Mundial, todo país islâmico que investe na educação de suas mulheres aumenta imediatamente 1% de seu PIB. Outra ação é dar mais visibilidade ao trabalho das mulheres, que muitas vezes não é valorizado. Nos Estados Unidos o trabalho feminino representa 38% do PIB. É preciso dar visibilidade a essa participação econômica das mulheres. Alem disso, são necessárias leis que garantam maior equidade e participação das mulheres em todos os processos decisórios. Teríamos que usar sistemas de cotas para mulheres para reverter a discriminação, que seria um passo para garantir maior equidade. Desgraçadamente, as catástrofes e os desastres provocados pelos eventos climáticos extremos irão ajudar no processo de dar maior poder às mulheres.

Agência FAPESP – De que maneira?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – No México, por exemplo, a produção campesina está nas mãos dos homens. Mas está passando para as mãos das mulheres, porque os homens migraram para os Estados Unidos em busca de emprego. Na nova condição de chefes de família, elas estão tendo que tomar decisões sobre as mais variadas questões. Nós precisamos ajudá-las nesse processo de “empoderamento”, possibilitando que elas tenham acesso a tecnologias sustentáveis, que lhes permitam, por exemplo, se proteger dos riscos de desastres causados pelos eventos climáticos extremos.

Agência FAPESP – Além da questão do “empoderamento”, que é um processo que demanda longo prazo, que ações mais urgentes devem ser tomadas para preparar as mulheres para enfrentar os eventos climáticos extremos?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – É preciso possibilitar e treinar as mulheres para que em um momento de perigo iminente, por exemplo, elas tenham o direito de sair de casa. Muitas comunidades proíbem que uma mulher saia de casa se não está acompanhada por um homem. Isso é uma discriminação e uma forma de controle que é preciso superar com leis de equidade de gênero. Além disso, é preciso treinar mulheres para aprender a nadar, a correr, a trepar em uma árvore, e permitir que possam usar uma roupa mais adequada para realizar essas atividades. Eu assisti os Jogos Olímpicos de Londres e me chamou a atenção a vestimenta das atletas da natação e de corrida da Arábia Saudita. Apesar de estarem vestidas de forma diferente das atletas de outros países, ao menos elas vestiam uma calça que lhes permitia correr, sem infringir os códigos religiosos. Esse é um tipo de ação que poderíamos socializar. Poderíamos aproveitar os Jogos Olímpicos para promover em todos os países islâmicos esse tipo de ação, e dar cursos de natação e de corrida para as mulheres.

Agência FAPESP – Dentre os três grupos humanos que a senhora aponta como os mais vulneráveis aos impactos das mudanças climáticas, qual apresenta maior resiliência?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – Só os indígenas têm a capacidade adquirida ao longo de milhares de anos de administrar situações muito difíceis sem contar com ajuda internacional, nacional ou estatal, mas sim sozinhos. Eles se adaptaram às mudanças climáticas e cultivaram durante milhares de anos e da mesma maneira vegetais, como batatas, resistentes à seca, ao frio e ao calor, e desenvolveram sistemas muito eficientes e baratos de irrigação e fertilização da terra. É preciso aproveitar esses conhecimentos tradicionais e vinculá-los às tecnologias modernas para nos adaptarmos às mudanças climáticas. Mas estamos perdendo esses conhecimentos tradicionais porque a última geração de indígenas que ainda detêm esses conhecimentos, que são jovens, já passou pela escola, fala outras línguas que não a materna e está perdendo sua cultura indígena. Se não fizermos nada, vamos perder mundialmente esses conhecimentos tradicionais que permitiriam desenvolver soluções locais para enfrentar as mudanças climáticas.

Agência FAPESP – Que iniciativas existem hoje para promover essa aproximação de conhecimentos tradicionais com os científicos?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – No México, por exemplo, foi criada a Universidade Campesina do Sul. Lá são integrados grupos locais, que são constituídos hoje basicamente por mulheres – há 20 anos eram formados, em sua maioria, por homens –, e com base nas necessidades desses grupos nós disseminamos um processo de educação baseado no método de Paulo Freire, em que eles aprendem a partir de sua própria realidade.

Agência FAPESP – O que é ensinado na Universidade Campesina do Sul? 
Úrsula Oswald Spring – Um dos temas com os quais trabalhamos é agricultura orgânica, ensinando as mulheres a trabalhar com hortas familiares, para garantir seus próprios alimentos e de sua família. Outro tema é o manejo de água. Há muita água não potável, como a utilizada para lavar as mãos, por exemplo, que é muito fácil de tratar e que pode ser utilizada junto com dejetos orgânicos de sanitários secos como melhoradores de solo para ajudar a recuperar a fertilidade natural do solo. Outro tema ao qual temos nos dedicado é o da medicina alternativa. A medicina moderna é muito cara e a maior parte das pessoas não tem recursos para utilizar o sistema de saúde. Em função disso, estamos criando modos de integrar a medicina tradicional mexicana, que utiliza ervas e métodos tradicionais de cura, como vapores, com a medicina moderna. É um conjunto de ações voltadas para potencializar o uso dos conhecimentos científico e tradicional e tentar buscar soluções para enfrentar coletivamente problemas das mais variadas ordens, como o das mudanças climáticas. Porque não são grandes obras que protegem as pessoas de uma catástrofe provocada por um evento climático extremo, como uma inundação, mas sim pequenas obras, contanto que sejam muito eficientes.

Agência FAPESP – Na opinião da senhora, como será possível enfrentar os riscos das mudanças climáticas em escala mundial, em um momento em que diversos países passam por graves crises econômicas e têm problemas mais urgentes para resolver?
Úrsula Oswald Spring – Há condições de grande incerteza em relação às mudanças climáticas porque, além das crises econômicas, grande parte das pessoas no mundo nunca presenciou uma situação de desastre causado por um evento climático extremo. Mas se algumas pessoas ainda não passaram por uma situação dessas, é preciso justamente pensar em maneiras de se preparar para enfrentar os eventos climáticos extremos, que ocorrerão com maior frequência nos próximos anos. E uma das formas de se fazer isso é descentralizando a gestão dos riscos das mudanças climáticas, levando em contas as condições próprias de cada região. O problema climático na Amazônia, por exemplo, não é o mesmo que ocorre na parte alta dos Andes. Os tipos de manejos nessas regiões são muito diferentes. Por isso, os países precisam descentralizar as ações. A gestão dos riscos de mudanças climáticas pelos países irá depender de uma boa gestão local. Os primeiros 10 minutos de uma situação de risco, como uma inundação ou deslizamento, são cruciais e não há ajuda internacional que possa socorrer. Por isso, é preciso investir fortemente em prevenção e treinamento em nível local para enfrentar os riscos de um evento climático extremo.

When Do We Lie? When We’re Short On Time and Long On Reasons (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 5, 2012) — Almost all of us have been tempted to lie at some point, whether about our GPA, our annual income, or our age. But what makes us actually do it?

In a study forthcoming inPsychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, psychological scientists Shaul Shalvi of the University of Amsterdam and Ori Eldar and Yoella Bereby-Meyer of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev investigated what factors influence dishonest behavior.

Previous research shows that a person’s first instinct is to serve his or her own self-interest. And research also shows that people are more likely to lie when they can justify such lies to themselves. With these findings in mind, Shalvi and colleagues hypothesized that, when under time pressure, having to make a decision that could yield financial reward would make people more likely to lie. They also hypothesized that, when people are not under time pressure, they are unlikely to lie if there is no opportunity to rationalize their behavior.

“According to our theory, people first act upon their self-serving instincts, and only with time do they consider what socially acceptable behavior is,” says Shalvi. “When people act quickly, they may attempt to do all they can to secure a profit — including bending ethical rules and lying. Having more time to deliberate leads people to restrict the amount of lying and refrain from cheating.”

The researchers first tested participants’ tendency to lie when doing so could be easily justified: Approximately 70 adult participants rolled a die three times such that the result was hidden from the experimenter’s view. The participants were told to report the first roll, and they earned more money for a higher reported roll.

Seeing the outcomes of the second and third rolls provided the participants with the opportunity to justify reporting the highest number that they rolled, even if it was not the first — after all, they had rolled that number, just not the first time they rolled the die. Some of the participants were under time pressure, and were instructed to report their answer within 20 seconds. The others were not under time pressure, and had an unlimited amount of time to provide a response.

The experimenters were not able to see the actual die rolls of the participants, to ensure all rolls were private. Instead, in order to determine whether or not the participants had lied about the numbers they rolled, Shalvi and colleagues compared their responses to those that would be expected from fair rolls. They found that both groups of participants lied, but those who were given less time to report their numbers were more likely to lie than those who weren’t under a time constraint.

The second experiment followed a similar procedure, except that the participants were not given information that could help them justify their lies: instead of rolling their die three times, they only rolled it once and then reported the outcome. In this experiment, the researchers found that participants who were under time pressure lied, while those without a time constraint did not.

Together, the two experiments suggest that, in general, people are more likely to lie when time is short. When time isn’t a concern, people may only lie when they have justifications for doing so.

One implication of the current findings is that to increase the likelihood of honest behavior in business or personal settings, it is important not push a person into a corner but rather to give him or her time,” explains Shalvi. “People usually know it is wrong to lie, they just need time to do the right thing.”

Embrapa envia sementes de milho e arroz para o Banco de Svalbard, na Noruega (O Globo)

JC e-mail 4577, de 05 de Setembro de 2012.

Banco nórdico é o mais seguro do mundo, construído para resistir a catástrofes climáticas e a explosão nuclear.

A Embrapa envia esta semana 264 amostras representativas de sementes de milho e 541 de arroz para o Banco Global de Sementes de Svalbard, na Noruega, como parte do acordo assinado com o Real Ministério de Agricultura e Alimentação do país em 2008. Serão enviadas ao banco genético norueguês as coleções nucleares de arroz e milho, ou seja, um grupo limitado de acessos derivados de uma coleção vegetal, escolhido para representar a variabilidade genética da coleção inteira. Tradicionalmente, as coleções nucleares são estabelecidas com tamanho em torno de 10% dos acessos de toda a coleção original e incluem aproximadamente 70% no acervo genético.

A escolha dessas culturas atende a uma das recomendações do Banco de Svalbard quanto à relevância para a segurança alimentar e agricultura sustentável. Embora não sejam culturas originárias do Brasil, são cultivadas no país há séculos e têm características de rusticidade e adaptabilidade às condições nacionais. A próxima cultura agrícola a ser encaminhada para o banco norueguês será o feijão, o que deve acontecer até o fim de 2012.

O envio de amostras para Svalbard é mais uma garantia de segurança, já que o banco nórdico é o mais seguro do mundo, construído com total segurança para resistir a catástrofes climáticas e até a uma explosão nuclear. O banco tem capacidade para quatro milhões e quinhentas mil amostras de sementes. O conjunto arquitetônico conta com três câmaras de segurança máxima situadas ao final de um túnel de 125 metros dentro de uma montanha em uma pequena ilha do arquipélago de Svalbard situado no paralelo 780 N, próximo do Pólo Norte.

As sementes são armazenadas a 20ºC abaixo de zero em embalagens hermeticamente fechadas, guardadas em caixas armazenadas em prateleiras. O depósito está rodeado pelo clima glacial do Ártico, o que assegura as baixas temperaturas, mesmo se houver falha no suprimento de energia elétrica. As baixas temperatura e umidade garantem a baixa atividade metabólica, mantendo a viabilidade das sementes por um milênio ou mais.

Kinsey Reporter: Free App Allows Public to Anonymously Report, Share Information On Sexual Behavior (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 5, 2012) — Indiana University has released Kinsey Reporter, a global mobile survey platform for collecting and reporting anonymous data about sexual and other intimate behaviors. The pilot project allows citizen observers around the world to use free applications now available for Apple and Android mobile platforms to not only report on sexual behavior and experiences, but also to share, explore and visualize the accumulated data.

The Kinsey Reporter platform is available free from Apple iOS and Google Play (for Android) online stores. Reports made by anonymous citizen scientists will be used for research and shared with the public at the Kinsey Reporter website. (Credit: Image courtesy of Indiana University)

“People are natural observers. It’s part of being social, and using mobile apps is an excellent way to involve citizen scientists,” said Julia Heiman, director of The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction. “We expect to get new insights into sexuality and relationships today. What do people notice, what are they involved in, and what can they relate to us about their lives and their communities?”

The project will collect anonymous data and then aggregate and share it openly. Kinsey Reporter is a joint project between The Kinsey Institute and the Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research, or CNetS, which is part of the IU School of Informatics and Computing and the Pervasive Technology Institute. Both Kinsey and CNetS are based on the IU Bloomington campus.

CNetS director Filippo Menczer called development of the citizen reporting platform an opportunity to gather information on important issues that may have been difficult to examine in the past.

“This new platform will allow us to explore issues that have been challenging to study until now, such as the prevalence of unreported sexual violence in different parts of the world, or the correlation between various sexual practices like condom use, for example, and the cultural, political, religious or health contexts in particular geographical areas. These were some of our initial motivations for the project,” he said.

Users simply download the free app and begin contributing observed information on topics such as sexual activity, public displays of affection, flirting, unwanted experiences and birth control use. Even though no information identifying users submitting reports is collected or stored, the time and general location of the report is collected and input into the database. Users also have the option of selecting their own geographic preference for the report by choosing city/town, state/region or country.

Surveys will change over time, and users can view aggregated reports by geographic region via interactive maps, timelines or charts. All of these reporting venues can be manipulated with filters that remove or add data based on specific survey topics and questions selected by the user.

Both Heiman and Menczer said The Kinsey Institute’s longstanding seminal studies of sexual behaviors created a perfect synergy with research going on at CNetS related to mining big data crowd-sourced from mobile social media. The sensitive domain — sexual relations — added an intriguing challenge in finding a way to share useful data with the community while protecting the privacy and anonymity of the reporting volunteers, they added.

Reports are transmitted to Kinsey Reporter using a secure, encrypted protocol, and the only data collected are a timestamp, the approximate geo-location selected by the user, and the tags the user chooses in response to various survey questions. The protections and anonymity provided to those responding to surveys allowed IU’s Institutional Review Board to classify the research as “exempt from review,” which allows the data to be used for research and shared without requiring informed consent from users of the apps.

The Kinsey Reporter platform is now in public beta release. Apps are available for free download at both the Apple iOS and Android app stores. Accompanying the app release are a Kinsey Reporter website, a Twitter feed and a Facebook page. The four resources also provide links to information about sexuality, such as blogs and podcasts from the Kinsey Confidential website. YouTube videos on “What Is the Kinsey Reporter App” and “Making the Kinsey Reporter App” are also available for viewing.

The Kinsey Institute receives support from the Office of the Vice Provost for Research at IU Bloomington, which is dedicated to supporting ongoing faculty research and creative activity and developing new multidisciplinary initiatives to enhance opportunities for federal, state and private research funding.

First Holistic View of How Human Genome Actually Works: ENCODE Study Produces Massive Data Set (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 5, 2012) — The Human Genome Project produced an almost complete order of the 3 billion pairs of chemical letters in the DNA that embodies the human genetic code — but little about the way this blueprint works. Now, after a multi-year concerted effort by more than 440 researchers in 32 labs around the world, a more dynamic picture gives the first holistic view of how the human genome actually does its job.

William Noble, professor of genome sciences and computer science, in the data center at the William H. Foege Building. Noble, an expert on machine learning, and his team designed artificial intellience programs to analyze ENCODE data. These computer programs can learn from experience, recognize patterns, and organize information into categories understandable to scientists. The center houses systems for a wide variety of genetic research. The computer center has the capacity to store and analyze a tremendous amount of data, the equivalent of a 670-page autobiography of each person on earth, uncompressed.The computing resources analyze over 4 pentabytes of genomic data a year. (Credit: Clare McLean, Courtesy of University of Washington)

During the new study, researchers linked more than 80 percent of the human genome sequence to a specific biological function and mapped more than 4 million regulatory regions where proteins specifically interact with the DNA. These findings represent a significant advance in understanding the precise and complex controls over the expression of genetic information within a cell. The findings bring into much sharper focus the continually active genome in which proteins routinely turn genes on and off using sites that are sometimes at great distances from the genes themselves. They also identify where chemical modifications of DNA influence gene expression and where various functional forms of RNA, a form of nucleic acid related to DNA, help regulate the whole system.

“During the early debates about the Human Genome Project, researchers had predicted that only a few percent of the human genome sequence encoded proteins, the workhorses of the cell, and that the rest was junk. We now know that this conclusion was wrong,” said Eric D. Green, M.D., Ph.D., director of the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), a part of the National Institutes of Health. “ENCODE has revealed that most of the human genome is involved in the complex molecular choreography required for converting genetic information into living cells and organisms.”

NHGRI organized the research project producing these results; it is called the Encyclopedia oDNA Elements or ENCODE. Launched in 2003, ENCODE’s goal of identifying all of the genome’s functional elements seemed just as daunting as sequencing that first human genome. ENCODE was launched as a pilot project to develop the methods and strategies needed to produce results and did so by focusing on only 1 percent of the human genome. By 2007, NHGRI concluded that the technology had sufficiently evolved for a full-scale project, in which the institute invested approximately $123 million over five years. In addition, NHGRI devoted about $40 million to the ENCODE pilot project, plus approximately $125 million to ENCODE-related technology development and model organism research since 2003.

The scale of the effort has been remarkable. Hundreds of researchers across the United States, United Kingdom, Spain, Singapore and Japan performed more than 1,600 sets of experiments on 147 types of tissue with technologies standardized across the consortium. The experiments relied on innovative uses of next-generation DNA sequencing technologies, which had only become available around five years ago, due in large part to advances enabled by NHGRI’s DNA sequencing technology development program. In total, ENCODE generated more than 15 trillion bytes of raw data and consumed the equivalent of more than 300 years of computer time to analyze.

“We’ve come a long way,” said Ewan Birney, Ph.D., of the European Bioinformatics Institute, in the United Kingdom, and lead analysis coordinator for the ENCODE project. “By carefully piecing together a simply staggering variety of data, we’ve shown that the human genome is simply alive with switches, turning our genes on and off and controlling when and where proteins are produced. ENCODE has taken our knowledge of the genome to the next level, and all of that knowledge is being shared openly.”

The ENCODE Consortium placed the resulting data sets as soon as they were verified for accuracy, prior to publication, in several databases that can be freely accessed by anyone on the Internet. These data sets can be accessed through the ENCODE project portal (www.encodeproject.org) as well as at the University of California, Santa Cruz genome browser,http://genome.ucsc.edu/ENCODE/, the National Center for Biotechnology Information,http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/info/ENCODE.html and the European Bioinformatics Institute,http://useast.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/encode.html?redirect=mirror;source=www.ensembl.org.

“The ENCODE catalog is like Google Maps for the human genome,” said Elise Feingold, Ph.D., an NHGRI program director who helped start the ENCODE Project. “Simply by selecting the magnification in Google Maps, you can see countries, states, cities, streets, even individual intersections, and by selecting different features, you can get directions, see street names and photos, and get information about traffic and even weather. The ENCODE maps allow researchers to inspect the chromosomes, genes, functional elements and individual nucleotides in the human genome in much the same way.”

The coordinated publication set includes one main integrative paper and five related papers in the journal Nature; 18 papers inGenome Research; and six papers in Genome Biology. The ENCODE data are so complex that the three journals have developed a pioneering way to present the information in an integrated form that they call threads.

“Because ENCODE has generated so much data, we, together with the ENCODE Consortium, have introduced a new way to enable researchers to navigate through the data,” said Magdalena Skipper, Ph.D., senior editor at Nature, which produced the freely available publishing platform on the Internet.

Since the same topics were addressed in different ways in different papers, the new website, www.nature.com/encode, will allow anyone to follow a topic through all of the papers in the ENCODE publication set by clicking on the relevant thread at the Nature ENCODE explorer page. For example, thread number one compiles figures, tables, and text relevant to genetic variation and disease from several papers and displays them all on one page. ENCODE scientists believe this will illuminate many biological themes emerging from the analyses.

In addition to the threaded papers, six review articles are being published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry and two related papers in Science and one in Cell.

The ENCODE data are rapidly becoming a fundamental resource for researchers to help understand human biology and disease. More than 100 papers using ENCODE data have been published by investigators who were not part of the ENCODE Project, but who have used the data in disease research. For example, many regions of the human genome that do not contain protein-coding genes have been associated with disease. Instead, the disease-linked genetic changes appear to occur in vast tracts of sequence between genes where ENCODE has identified many regulatory sites. Further study will be needed to understand how specific variants in these genomic areas contribute to disease.

“We were surprised that disease-linked genetic variants are not in protein-coding regions,” said Mike Pazin, Ph.D., an NHGRI program director working on ENCODE. “We expect to find that many genetic changes causing a disorder are within regulatory regions, or switches, that affect how much protein is produced or when the protein is produced, rather than affecting the structure of the protein itself. The medical condition will occur because the gene is aberrantly turned on or turned off or abnormal amounts of the protein are made. Far from being junk DNA, this regulatory DNA clearly makes important contributions to human health and disease.”

Identifying regulatory regions will also help researchers explain why different types of cells have different properties. For example why do muscle cells generate force while liver cells break down food? Scientists know that muscle cells turn on some genes that only work in muscle, but it has not been previously possible to examine the regulatory elements that control that process. ENCODE has laid a foundation for these kinds of studies by examining more than 140 of the hundreds of cell types found in the human body and identifying many of the cell type-specific control elements.

Despite the enormity of the dataset described in this historic collection of publications, it does not comprehensively describe all of the functional genomic elements in all of the different types of cells in the human body. NHGRI plans to invest in additional ENCODE-related research for at least another four years. During the next phase, ENCODE will increase the depth of the catalog with respect to the types of functional elements and cell types studied. It will also develop new tools for more sophisticated analyses of the data.

Journal References:

  1. Magdalena Skipper, Ritu Dhand, Philip Campbell.Presenting ENCODENature, 2012; 489 (7414): 45 DOI:10.1038/489045a
  2. Joseph R. Ecker, Wendy A. Bickmore, Inês Barroso, Jonathan K. Pritchard, Yoav Gilad, Eran Segal. Genomics: ENCODE explainedNature, 2012; 489 (7414): 52 DOI:10.1038/489052a
  3. The ENCODE Project Consortium. An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome.Nature, 2012; 489 (7414): 57 DOI: 10.1038/nature11247

Deadly Witch Hunts Targeted by Grassroots Women’s Groups (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 4, 2012) — Witch hunts are common and sometimes deadly in the tea plantations of Jalpaiguri, India. But a surprising source — small groups of women who meet through a government loan program — has achieved some success in preventing the longstanding practice, a Michigan State University sociologist found.

Basanti, shown here with children in her family, survived a witch hunt in India’s tea plantations. (Credit: Photo by Soma Chaudhuri)

Soma Chaudhuri spent seven months studying witch hunts in her native India and discovered that the economic self-help groups have made it part of their agenda to defend their fellow plantation workers against the hunts.

“It’s a grassroots movement and it’s helping provide a voice to women who wouldn’t otherwise have one,” said Chaudhuri, assistant professor of sociology and criminal justice. “I can see the potential for this developing into a social movement, but it’s not going to happen in a day because an entire culture needs to be changed.”

Witch hunts, she explained, are fueled by the tribal workers’ belief in the existence of witches and the desperate need of this poor, illiterate population to make sense of rampant diseases in villages with no doctors or medical facilities. There are some 84 million tribal people in India, representing about 8 percent of the country’s population.

In 2003, at a tea plantation in Jalpaiguri, five women were tied up, tortured and killed after being falsely accused of witchcraft in the death of a male villager who had suffered from a stomach illness.

Chaudhuri interviewed the villagers at length and found that such attacks are often impulsive and that the “witch” is often killed immediately. Widespread alcoholism is also a factor, she found.

But the study also documents examples of the women’s groups stopping potential attacks. In one case, a woman was accused of causing disease in livestock and an attack was planned. Members of the self-help groups gathered in a vigil around the woman’s home and surrounded the accuser’s home as well, stating their case to the accuser’s wife. Eventually the wife intervened and her husband recanted and “begged for forgiveness.”

Through the loan program, each woman is issued a low-interest, collateral-free “microcredit” loan of about 750 rupees ($18) to start her own business such as basket weaving, tailoring or selling chicken eggs. Participants meet in groups of about eight to 10 to support one another.

Chaudhuri said the loan program is run by nongovernmental activists who have been successful in encouraging the groups to look beyond the economic aspects and mobilize against domestic abuse, alcoholism and the practice of witch hunts.

Through the bonds of trust and friendship, group members have established the necessary social capital to collectively resist the deep-seated tradition of witch hunts, Chaudhuri said.

“Why would they go against something so risky, something that breaks tradition?” she said. “They do it because they believe in the ideals of the microcredit group — in women’s development, family development and gender equality.”

The study, which Chaudhuri co-authored with Anuradha Chakravarty of the University of South Carolina, appears in Mobilization, an international research journal.

Journal Reference:

  1. Anuradha Chakravarty, Soma Chaudhuri. Strategic Framing Work(s): How Microcredit Loans Facilitate Anti-Witch-Hunt MovementsMobilization, 2012; 17 (2)

Violent Video Games Not So Bad When Players Cooperate (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 4, 2012) — New research suggests that violent video games may not make players more aggressive — if they play cooperatively with other people.

In two studies, researchers found that college students who teamed up to play violent video games later showed more cooperative behavior, and sometimes less signs of aggression, than students who played the games competitively.

The results suggest that it is too simplistic to say violent video games are always bad for players, said David Ewoldsen, co-author of the studies and professor of communication at Ohio State University.

“Clearly, research has established there are links between playing violent video games and aggression, but that’s an incomplete picture,” Ewoldsen said.

“Most of the studies finding links between violent games and aggression were done with people playing alone. The social aspect of today’s video games can change things quite a bit.”

The new research suggests playing a violent game with a teammate changes how people react to the violence.

“You’re still being very aggressive, you’re still killing people in the game — but when you cooperate, that overrides any of the negative effects of the extreme aggression,” said co-author John Velez, a graduate student in communication at Ohio State.

One study was recently published online in the journalCommunication Research, and will appear in a future print edition. The second related study was published recently in the journal Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking.

The CBSN study involved 119 college students who were placed into four groups to play the violent video game Halo II with a partner. The groups differed in whether they competed or cooperated in playing the game.

First, all participants filled out a survey about their video game history and a measure of their aggressiveness.

Those in direct competition played in multiplayer mode and were told that their task was to kill their opponent more times than they were killed.

Those in indirect competition played in single-player mode, but were told their task was to beat their opponent by getting further in the game.

In the cooperative condition, participants were told to get as far as they could through the game by working with their partner in Halo II’s cooperative campaign mode. In this case, the pair worked together to defeat computer-controlled enemies.

The final group simply filled out the measures and played the game at the end of the study. Their game playing was not recorded.

After playing the violent video game, the same pairs of participants who played with or against each other took part in a real-life game where they had the opportunity to cooperate or compete with each other.

In this game, they played multiple rounds where they were given dimes which they could keep or share with their partner. The researchers were looking to see if they engaged in “tit for tat” behavior, in which the players mirrored the behaviors of their partner. In other words, if your partner acts cooperatively towards you, you do the same for him. Tit for tat behavior is seen by researchers as a precursor to cooperation.

The results showed that participants who played the video game cooperatively were more likely than those who competed to show cooperative tendencies in this later real-life game.

“These findings suggest video game research needs to consider not only the content of the game but also how video game players are playing the game,” Velez said.

The second study, published in Communication Research, extended the findings by showing that cooperating in playing a violent video game can even unite people from rival groups — in this case, fans of Ohio State and those of their bitter rival, the University of Michigan.

This study involved 80 Ohio State students who, when they came to the lab for the experiment, were paired with a person who they thought was another student participant. In fact, it was one of the experimenters who was wearing an Ohio State t-shirt — or one from the rival University of Michigan.

One of the researchers made sure to point out the t-shirt to the student participant.

The student and confederate then played the highly realistic and violent first-person-shooter video game Unreal Tournament III together — either as teammates or as rivals.

After playing the video game, the participants played the same real-life game used in the previous study with their supposed partner, who was really one of the researchers.

They also completed tasks that measured how aggressive they felt, and their aggressive tendencies.

The results showed the power of cooperatively playing violent video games in reducing aggressive thoughts — and even overcoming group differences.

As in the first study, players who cooperated in playing the video game later showed more cooperation than did those who competed against each other.

It even worked when Ohio State participants thought they were playing with a rival from the University of Michigan.

“The cooperative play just wiped out any effect of who you were playing with,” Velez said. “Ohio State students happily cooperated with Michigan fans.”

Also, those participants who played cooperatively showed less aggressive tendencies afterwards than those who played competitively, at least at first. In fact, those who played competitively with a rival actually showed less aggression than those who played with a supporter of their own team.

“If you’re playing with a rival, and that rival is cooperating with you, that violates your expectations — you’re surprised by their cooperation and that makes you even more willing to cooperate,” Ewoldsen said.

Eventually, even those who competed with each other in the video games started cooperating with each other in the real-life games afterwards.

“The point is that the way you act in the real world very quickly overrides anything that is going on in the video games,” Ewoldsen said. “Video games aren’t controlling who we are.”

These results should encourage researchers to study not only how the content of violent video games affects players, but also how the style of play has an impact.

“What is more important: cooperating with another human being, or killing a digital creature?” Ewoldsen said.

“We think that cooperating with another human overrides the effects of playing a violent video game.”

Other authors of the CBSN paper were Cassie Eno of Waldorf College; Bradley Okdie of Ohio State’s Newark campus; Rosanna Guadagno of the University of Alabama; and James DeCoster of the University of Virginia.

Other authors of the Communication Research paper were Chad Mahood and Emily Moyer-Guse, both of Ohio State.

Journal References:

  1. J. A. Velez, C. Mahood, D. R. Ewoldsen, E. Moyer-Guse.Ingroup Versus Outgroup Conflict in the Context of Violent Video Game Play: The Effect of Cooperation on Increased Helping and Decreased Aggression.Communication Research, 2012; DOI:10.1177/0093650212456202
  2. David R. Ewoldsen, Cassie A. Eno, Bradley M. Okdie, John A. Velez, Rosanna E. Guadagno, Jamie DeCoster. Effect of Playing Violent Video Games Cooperatively or Competitively on Subsequent Cooperative Behavior.Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 2012; 15 (5): 277 DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2011.0308

How Language Change Sneaks in (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 4, 2012) — Languages are continually changing, not just words but also grammar. A recent study examines how such changes happen and what the changes can tell us about how speakers’ grammars work.

The study, “The course of actualization,” to be published in the September 2012 issue of the scholarly journal Language, is authored by Hendrik De Smet of the University of Leuven /Research Foundation Flanders.

Historical linguists, who document and study language change, have long noticed that language changes have a sneaky quality, starting small and unobtrusive and then gradually conquering more ground, a process termed ‘actualization’. De Smet’s study investigates how actualization proceeds by tracking and comparing different language changes, using large collections of digitized historical texts. This way, it is shown that any actualization process consists of a series of smaller changes with each new change building on and following from the previous ones, each time making only a minimal adjustment. A crucial role in this is played by similarity.

Consider the development of so-called downtoners — grammatical elements that minimize the force of the word they accompany. Nineteenth-century English saw the emergence of a new downtoner, all but, meaning ‘almost’. All but started out being used only with adjectives, as in her escape was all but miraculous. But later it also began to turn up with verbs, as in until his clothes all but dropped from him. In grammatical terms, that is a fairly big leap, but when looked at closely the leap is found to go in smaller steps. Before all but spread to verbs, it appeared with past participles, which very much resemble both adjectives and verbs, as in her breath was all but gone. So, changes can sneak into a language and spread from context to context by exploiting the similarities between contexts.

The role of similarity in language change makes a number of predictions. For one thing, actualization processes will differ from item to item because in each case there will be different similarities to exploit. English is currently seeing some nouns developing into adjectives, such as fun or key. This again goes by small adjustments, but along different pathways. For fun, speakers started from expressions like that was really fun, which they would adjust to that was very fun, and from there they would go on to a very fun time and by now some have even gone on to expressions like the funnest time ever. For key, change started from expressions like a key player, which could be adjusted to an absolutely key player, and from there to a player who is absolutely key. When the changes are over, the eventual outcome will be the same — fun and key will have all the characteristics of any other English adjective — but the way that is coming about is different.

Another prediction is that actualization processes will differ from language to language, because grammatical contexts that are similar in one language may not be in another. Comparing the development of another English downtoner, far from (as in far from perfect), to its Dutch equivalent, verre van, it is found that, even though they started out quite similar, the two downtoners went on to develop differently due to differences in the overall structure of English and Dutch. Importantly, this is one way in which even small changes may reinforce and gradually increase existing differences between languages.

Finally, this research can say something about how language works in general. Similarity is so important to how changes unfold precisely because it is important to how speakers subconsciously use language all the time. Presumably, whenever a speaker thinks up a new sentence and decides it is acceptable, they do so by evaluating its resemblance to previous sentences. In this respect, actualization processes are giving us a unique window on how similarity works in organizing and reorganizing speakers’ internal grammars, showing just how sensitive speakers are to all sorts of similarities. Strikingly, then, the same similarity judgments that speakers make to form acceptable and intelligible sentences allow their grammars to gradually change over time.

Journal Reference:

  1. Hendrik De Smet. The Course of Actualization.Language, 2012 (in press)

Reciprocity an Important Component of Prosocial Behavior: Scorekeeping of Past Favors Isn’t, However, a Factor (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 3, 2012) — While exchanging favors with others, humans tend to think in terms of tit-for-tat, an assumption easily extended to other animals. As a result, reciprocity is often viewed as a cognitive feat requiring memory, perhaps even calculation. But what if the process is simpler, not only in other animals but in humans as well?

Researchers at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, have determined monkeys may gain the advantages of reciprocal exchange of favors without necessarily keeping precise track of past favors. Malini Suchak, a graduate student at Emory University, and Frans de Waal, PhD, director of the Living Links Center at Yerkes and C.H. Candler Professor of Psychology at Emory, led the study. Their findings will appear in an Early Online Edition of theProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences this week.

“Prosocial is defined as a motivation to assist others regardless of benefits for self, explained Suchak. “We used a prosocial choice test to study whether direct reciprocity could promote generosity among brown capuchin monkeys. We found one monkey willing to do another favors if the first monkey was the only one to choose, and we found the monkeys became even more prosocial if they could alternate and help each other. We did not find any evidence that the monkeys paid close attention to each other’s past choices, so they were prosocial regardless of what their partner had just done,” she continued.

Suchak and de Waal suggest the synchronization of the same actions in alternation creates a more positive attitude the same way humans who row a boat together or work toward a shared goal develop a more positive attitude about each other.

Another interesting finding according to the researchers is the capuchin monkeys were prosocial whether they were paired with a familiar partner from their own group {in-group} or a partner from a different social group {out-group}.

According to de Waal, “This research has several implications for better understanding human behavior. First, we observed an increase in prosocial behavior as a result of reciprocity, but the monkeys did not develop a contingency between their own and their partners’ behaviors. Like humans, the capuchins may have understood the benefits of reciprocity and used this understanding to maximize their own benefits. Second, that the capuchins responded similarly to in-group and out-group partners has implications for the commonly held view that humans are unique in their ability to cooperate with strangers,” de Waal explained.

According to the researchers, capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) are ideal subjects for this type of study given the numerous observations of cooperative and prosocial behavior in the field, their sensitivity to other monkeys’ efforts in coordination experiments, and their robust, spontaneous prosocial behavior in the prosocial choice test compared with, for example, chimpanzees, which seem more sensitive to methodological variables.

In this study, the researchers tested 12 brown capuchin monkeys in pairs on a prosocial choice task. The monkeys had the choice between a selfish token that benefited only them and a prosocial token that benefited themselves and a partner. By comparing each monkey’s behavior with a familiar partner from the monkey’s own group and a partner from a different social group, the researchers examined the influence of each monkey’s relationship outside the experimental context on prosocial behavior. There was no difference between in-group and out-group pairs in any of the test conditions. To test the role of reciprocity, the researchers allowed the monkeys to take turns making choices and found this greatly increased prosocial behavior, but the researchers did not observe any tit-for-tat behavior. The researchers also tested whether the monkeys could overcome their aversion for inequity by creating a situation in which both individuals could provide each other with superior rewards, making reciprocity an even more attractive strategy. The monkeys did, but again without keeping track of each other’s choices. Finally, through a series of control conditions, the researchers established the monkeys were responding to their partners’ behaviors, rather than the rewards delivered by their partners, and that the monkeys understood the values of the tokens and were flexibly responding to changing conditions throughout the test sessions.

This research opens several avenues for future research, including further examining the emergence of reciprocity among humans without the cognition required for tit-for-tat and the tendency to cooperate with out-group partners.

Journal Reference:

  1. Malini Suchak and Frans B. M. de Waal. Monkeys benefit from reciprocity without the cognitive burden.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2012; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1213173109

Tigers Take the Night Shift to Coexist With People (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 3, 2012) — Tigers aren’t known for being accommodating, but a new study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences indicates that the carnivores in Nepal are taking the night shift to better coexist with humans.

A tiger camera trapped in Chitwan National Forest in Nepal. (Credit: Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability, Michigan State University)

The revelation that tigers and people are sharing exactly the same space — the same roads and trails — of Chitwan National Park flies in the face of long-held convictions in conservation circles. It also underscores how successful conservation efforts need sciences that takes into account both nature and humans.

“As our planet becomes more crowded, we need to find creative solutions that consider both human and natural systems,” said Jianguo “Jack” Liu, the director of the Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability at Michigan State University. “Sustainability can be achieved if we have a good understanding of the complicated connections between both worlds. We’ve found something very interesting is happening in Nepal that holds promise for both humans and nature to thrive.”

Conventional conservation wisdom is that tigers need plenty of people-free space, which often leads to people being relocated or their access to resources compromised to make way for tigers.

Neil Carter, MSU doctoral student and one of the paper’s co-authors, spent two seasons setting motion-detecting camera traps. His analysis of the images shows that people and tigers are walking the same paths, albeit at different times.

Tigers typically move around at all times of the day and night, monitoring their territory, mating and hunting. But in the study area, the tigers had become creatures of the night. People in Nepal generally avoid the forests at night. Essentially, quitting time for people signals starting time for Chitwan’s tigers.

“It’s a very fundamental conflict over resources,” Carter said. “Tigers need resources, people need the same resources. If we operate under the traditional wisdom that tigers only can survive with space dedicated solely for them, there would always be conflict. If your priority is people, tigers lose out. If your priority is tigers, people lose out.”

In Chitwan, tigers seem to be adapting to make it work, he added.

“There appears to be a middle ground where you might actually be able to protect the species at high densities and give people access to forest goods they need to live,” Carter said. “If that’s the case, then this can happen in other places, and the future of tigers is much brighter than it would be otherwise.”

Additional co-authors of the paper include Binoj Shresthaof the Institute for Social and Environmental Research in Nepal, Jhamak Karkiof Nepal’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and Narendra Man Babu Pradhan of the World Wildlife Fund in Nepal.

The research was funded by the National Science Foundation, NASA, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Fund and MSU AgBioReseach. It was part of the Partnership for International Research and Education.

Realistically What Might the Future Climate Look Like? (Skeptical Science)

Posted on 31 August 2012 by dana1981

Robert Watson, former Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), recently made headlines by declaring that it is unlikely we will be able to limit global warming to the 2°C ‘danger limit’.  This past April, the International Energy Agency similarly warnedthat we are rapidly running out of time to avoid blowing past 2°C global warming compared to late 19th Century temperatures.  The reason for their pessimism is illustrated in the ‘ski slopes’ graphic, which depicts how steep emissions cuts will have to be in order to give ourselves a good chance to stay below the 2°C target, given different peak emissions dates (Figure 1).

ski slopes

Figure 1: Three scenarios, each of which would limit the total global emission of carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning and industrial processes to 750 billion tonnes over the period 2010–2050.  Source: German Advisory Council on Global Change, WBGU (2009)

Clearly our CO2 emissions have not yet peaked – in fact they increased by 1 billion tonnes between 2010 and 2011 despite a continued global economic recession; therefore, the green curve is no longer an option.  There has also been little progress toward an international climate accord to replace the Kyoto Protocol, which suggests that the blue curve does not represent a likely scenario either – in order to achieve peak emissions in 2015 we would have to take serious steps to reduce emissions today, which we are not.  The red curve seems the most likely, but the required cuts are so steep that it is unlikely we will be able to achieve them, which means we are indeed likely to surpass the 2°C target.

Thus it is worth exploring the question, what would a world with >2°C global surface warming look like?

Global Warming Impacts

The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) summarizes the magnitudes of impact of various degrees of warming here, and graphically in Figure 2, relative to ~1990 temperatures (~0.6°C above late 19th Century temperatures).

fig spm.2

Figure 2: Illustrative examples of global impacts projected for climate changes (and sea level and atmospheric carbon dioxide where relevant) associated with different amounts of increase in global average surface temperature in the 21st century. The black lines link impacts, dotted arrows indicate impacts continuing with increasing temperature. Entries are placed so that the left-hand side of the text indicates the approximate onset of a given impact. Quantitative entries for water stress and flooding represent the additional impacts of climate change relative to the conditions projected across the range of Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) scenarios. Adaptation to climate change is not included in these estimations. Confidence levels for all statements are high.  IPCC AR4 WGII Figure SPM.2.  Click the image for a larger version.

Some adverse impacts are expected even before we reach the 2°C limit, for example hundreds of millions of people being subjected to increased water stress, increasing drought at mid-latitudes (as we recently discussed here), increased coral bleaching, increased coastal damage from floods and storms, and increased morbidity and mortality from more frequent and intense heat waves (see here), floods, and droughts.  However, by and large these are impacts which we should be able to adapt to, at a cost, but without disastrous consequences.

Once we surpass the 2°C target, the impacts listed above are exacerbated, and some new impacts will occur.  Most corals will bleach, and widespread coral mortality is expected ~3°C above late 19th Century temperatures.  Up to 30% of global species will be at risk for extinction, and the figure could exceed 40% if we surpass 4°C, as we continue on the path toward the Earth’s sixth mass extinction.  Coastal flooding will impact millions more people at ~2.5°C, and a number of adverse health effects are expected to continue rising along with temperatures.

Reasons for Concern

Smith et al. (2009) (on which the late great Stephen Schneider was a co-author) updated the IPCC impact assessment, arriving at similar conclusions.  For example,

“There is medium confidence that ~20–30% of known plant and animal species are likely to be at increased risk of extinction if increases in global average temperature exceed 1.5 °C to 2.5 °C over 1980–1999”

“increases in drought, heat waves, and floods are projected in many regions and would have adverse impacts, including increased water stress, wildfire frequency, and flood risks (starting at less than 1 °C of additional warming above 1990 levels) and adverse health effects (slightly above 1 °C)”

“climate change over the next century is likely to adversely affect hundreds of millions of people through increased coastal flooding after a further 2 °C warming from 1990 levels; reductions in water supplies (0.4 to 1.7 billion people affected with less than a 1 °C warming from 1990 levels); and increased health impacts (that are already being observed”

Smith et al. updated the 2001 IPCC report ‘burning embers’ diagram to reflect their findings (Figure 3).  On this figure, white regions indicate neutral or low impacts or risks, yellow indicates negative impacts for some systems or more significant risks, and red indicates substantial negative impacts or risks that are more widespread and/or severe.  They have grouped the various climate change consequences into ‘reasons for concern’ (RFCs), summarized below.

smith embers

Figure 3:  Risks from climate change, by reason for concern (RFC). Climate change consequences are plotted against increases in global mean temperature (°C) after 1990. Each column corresponds to a specific RFC and represents additional outcomes associated with increasing global mean temperature. The color scheme represents progressively increasing levels of risk and should not be interpreted as representing ‘‘dangerous anthropogenic interference,’’ which is a value judgment. The historical period 1900 to 2000 warmed by 0.6 °C and led to some impacts. It should be noted that this figure addresses only how risks change as global mean temperature increases, not how risks might change at different rates of warming. Furthermore, it does not address when impacts might be realized, nor does it account for the effects of different development pathways on vulnerability.

  • Risk to Unique and Threatened Systems addresses the potential for increased damage to or irreversible loss of unique and threatened systems, such as coral reefs, tropical glaciers, endangered species, unique ecosystems, biodiversity hotspots, small island states, and indigenous communities.
  • Risk of Extreme Weather Events tracks increases in extreme events with substantial consequences for societies and natural systems. Examples include increase in the frequency, intensity, or consequences of heat waves, floods, droughts, wildfires, or tropical cyclones.
  • Distribution of Impacts concerns disparities of impacts.  Some regions, countries, and populations face greater harm from climate change, whereas other regions, countries, or populations would be much less harmed—and some may benefit; the magnitude of harm can also vary within regions and across sectors and populations.
  • Aggregate Damages covers comprehensive measures of impacts. Impacts distributed across the globe can be aggregated into a single metric, such as monetary damages, lives affected, or lives lost. Aggregation techniques vary in their treatment of equity of outcomes, as well as treatment of impacts that are not easily quantified.
  • Risks of Large-Scale Discontinuities represents the likelihood that certain phenomena (sometimes called tipping points) would occur, any of which may be accompanied by very large impacts. These phenomena include the deglaciation (partial or complete) of the West Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets and major changes in some components of the Earth’s climate system, such as a substantial reduction or collapse of the North Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation.

All of these reasons for concern enter the red (substantial negative impact, high risk) region by 4°C.  Aggregate impacts are in the red region by 3°C, and some types of concerns are in the red region by 1°C.

For more details we also recommend Mark Lynas’ book Six Degrees, which goes through the climate impacts from each subsequent degree of warming, based on a very thorough review of the scientific literature.  A brief review of the book by Eric Steig and summary of some key impacts is available here.  National Geographic also did a series of videos on the Six Degrees theme, which no longer seem to be available on their websites, but which can still be found on YouTube.

This is Why Reducing Emissions is Critical

We’re not yet committed to surpassing 2°C global warming, but as Watson noted, we are quickly running out of time to realistically give ourselves a chance to stay below that ‘danger limit’.  However, 2°C is not a do-or-die threshold.  Every bit of CO2 emissions we can reduce means that much avoided future warming, which means that much avoided climate change impacts.  As Lonnie Thompson noted, the more global warming we manage to mitigate, the less adaption and suffering we will be forced to cope with in the future.

Realistically, based on the current political climate (which we will explore in another post next week), limiting global warming to 2°C is probably the best we can do.  However, there is a big difference between 2°C and 3°C, between 3°C and 4°C, and anything greater than 4°C can probably accurately be described as catastrophic, since various tipping points are expected to be triggered at this level.  Right now, we are on track for the catastrophic consequences (widespread coral mortality, mass extinctions, hundreds of millions of people adversely impacted by droughts, floods, heat waves, etc.).  But we’re not stuck on that track just yet, and we need to move ourselves as far off of it as possible by reducing our greenhouse gas emissions as soon and as much as possible.

There are of course many people who believe that the planet will not warm as much, or that the impacts of the associated climate change will be as bad as the body of scientific evidence suggests.  That is certainly a possiblity, and we very much hope that their optimistic view is correct.  However, what we have presented here is the best summary of scientific evidence available, and it paints a very bleak picture if we fail to rapidly reduce our greenhouse gas emissions.

If we continue forward on our current path, catastrophe is not just a possible outcome, it is the most probable outcome.  And an intelligent risk management approach would involve taking steps to prevent a catastrophic scenario if it were a mere possibility, let alone the most probable outcome.  This is especially true since the most important component of the solution – carbon pricing – can be implemented at a relatively low cost, and a far lower cost than trying to adapt to the climate change consequences we have discussed here (Figure 4).

Figure 4:  Approximate costs of climate action (green) and inaction (red) in 2100 and 2200. Sources: German Institute for Economic Research andWatkiss et al. 2005

Climate contrarians will often mock ‘CAGW’ (catastrophic anthropogenic global warming), but the sad reality is that CAGW is looking more and more likely every day.  But it’s critical that we don’t give up, that we keep doing everything we can do to reduce our emissions as much as possible in order to avoid as many catastrophic consequences as possible, for the sake of future generations and all species on Earth.  The future climate will probably be much more challenging for life on Earth than today’s, but we still can and must limit the damage.

Design Help for Drug Cocktails for HIV Patients: Mathematical Model Helps Design Efficient Multi-Drug Therapies (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 2, 2012) — For years, doctors treating those with HIV have recognized a relationship between how faithfully patients take the drugs they prescribe, and how likely the virus is to develop drug resistance. More recently, research has shown that the relationship between adherence to a drug regimen and resistance is different for each of the drugs that make up the “cocktail” used to control the disease.

HIV is shown attaching to and infecting a T4 cell. The virus then inserts its own genetic material into the T4 cell’s host DNA. The infected host cell then manufactures copies of the HIV. (Credit: iStockphoto/Medical Art Inc.)

New research conducted by Harvard scientists could help explain why those differences exist, and may help doctors quickly and cheaply design new combinations of drugs that are less likely to result in resistance.

As described in a September 2 paper in Nature Medicine, a team of researchers led by Martin Nowak, Professor of Mathematics and of Biology and Director of the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, have developed a technique medical researchers can use to model the effects of various treatments, and predict whether they will cause the virus to develop resistance.

“What we demonstrate in this paper is a prototype for predicting, through modeling, whether a patient at a given adherence level is likely to develop resistance to treatment,” Alison Hill, a PhD student in Biophysics and co-first author of the paper, said. “Compared to the time and expense of a clinical trial, this method offers a relatively easy way to make these predictions. And, as we show in the paper, our results match with what doctors are seeing in clinical settings.”

The hope, said Nowak, is that the new technique will take some of the guesswork out of what is now largely a trial-and-error process.

“This is a mathematical tool that will help design clinical trials,” he said. “Right now, researchers are using trial and error to develop these combination therapies. Our approach uses the mathematical understanding of evolution to make the process more akin to engineering.”

Creating a model that can make such predictions accurately, however, requires huge amounts of data.

To get that data, Hill and Daniel Scholes Rosenbloom, a PhD student in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and the paper’s other first author, turned to Johns Hopkins University Medical School, where Professor of Medicine and of Molecular Biology and Genetics Robert F. Siliciano was working with PhD student Alireza Rabi (also co-first author) to study how the HIV virus reacted to varying drug dosages.

Such data proved critical to the model that Hill, Rabi and Rosenbloom eventually designed, because the level of the drug in patients — even those that adhere to their treatment perfectly — naturally varies. When drug levels are low — as they are between doses, or if a dose is missed — the virus is better able to replicate and grow. Higher drug levels, by contrast, may keep the virus in check, but they also increase the risk of mutant strains of the virus emerging, leading to drug resistance.

Armed with the data from Johns Hopkins, Hill, Rabi and Rosenbloom created a computer model that could predict whether and how much the virus, or a drug-resistant strain, was growing based on how strictly patients stuck to their drug regimen.

“Our model is essentially a simulation of what goes on during treatment,” Rosenbloom said. “We created a number of simulated patients, each of whom had different characteristics, and then we said, ‘Let’s imagine these patients have 60 percent adherence to their treatment — they take 60 percent of the pills they’re supposed to.’ Our model can tell us what their drug concentration is over time, and based on that, we can say whether the virus is growing or shrinking, and whether they’re likely to develop resistance.”

The model’s predictions, Rosenbloom explained, can then serve as a guide to researchers as they work to design new drug cocktails to combat HIV.

While their model does hold out hope for simplifying the process of designing drug “cocktails,” Hill and Rosenbloom said they plan to continue to refine the model to take additional factors — such as multiple mutant-resistant strains of the virus and varying drug concentrations in other parts of the body — into effect.

“The prototype we have so far looks at concentrations of drugs in blood plasma,” Rosenbloom explained. “But a number of drugs don’t penetrate other parts of the body, like the brains or the gut, with the same efficiency, so it’s important to model these other areas where the concentrations of drugs might not be as high.”

Ultimately, though, both say their model can offer new hope to patients by helping doctors design better, cheaper and more efficient treatments.

“Over the past 10 years, the number of HIV-infected people receiving drug treatment has increased immensely,” Hill said. “Figuring out what the best ways are to treat people in terms of cost effectiveness, adherence and the chance of developing resistance is going to become even more important.”

Journal Reference:

  1. Daniel I S Rosenbloom, Alison L Hill, S Alireza Rabi, Robert F Siliciano, Martin A Nowak. Antiretroviral dynamics determines HIV evolution and predicts therapy outcomeNature Medicine, 2012; DOI: 10.1038/nm.2892

*   *   *

Anti-HIV Drug Simulation Offers ‘Realistic’ Tool to Predict Drug Resistance and Viral Mutation

ScienceDaily (Sep. 2, 2012) — Pooling data from thousands of tests of the antiviral activity of more than 20 commonly used anti-HIV drugs, AIDS experts at Johns Hopkins and Harvard universities have developed what they say is the first accurate computer simulation to explain drug effects. Already, the model clarifies how and why some treatment regimens fail in some patients who lack evidence of drug resistance. Researchers say their model is based on specific drugs, precise doses prescribed, and on “real-world variation” in how well patients follow prescribing instructions.

Johns Hopkins co-senior study investigator and infectious disease specialist Robert Siliciano, M.D., Ph.D., says the mathematical model can also be used to predict how well a patient is likely to do on a specific regimen, based on their prescription adherence. In addition, the model factors in each drug’s ability to suppress viral replication and the likelihood that such suppression will spur development of drug-resistant, mutant HIV strains.

“With the help of our simulation, we can now tell with a fair degree of certainty what level of viral suppression is being achieved — how hard it is for the virus to grow and replicate — for a particular drug combination, at a specific dosage and drug concentration in the blood, even when a dose is missed,” says Siliciano, a professor at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator. This information, he predicts, will remove “a lot of the current trial and error, or guesswork, involved in testing new drug combination therapies.”

Siliciano says the study findings, to be reported in the journalNature Medicine online Sept. 2, should help scientists streamline development and clinical trials of future combination therapies, by ruling out combinations unlikely to work.

One application of the model could be further development of drug combinations that can be contained in a single pill taken once a day. That could lower the chance of resistance, even if adherence is not perfect. Such future drug regimens, he says, will ideally strike a balance between optimizing viral suppression and minimizing risk of drug resistance.

Researchers next plan to expand their modeling beyond blood levels of virus to other parts of the body, such as the brain, where antiretroviral drug concentrations can be different from those measured in the blood. They also plan to expand their analysis to include multiple-drug-resistant strains of HIV.

Besides Siliciano, Johns Hopkins joint medical-doctoral student Alireza Rabi was a co-investigator in this study. Other study investigators included doctoral candidates Daniel Rosenbloom, M.S.; Alison Hill, M.S.; and co-senior study investigator Martin Nowak, Ph.D. — all at Harvard University.

Funding support for this study, which took two years to complete, was provided by the National Institutes of Health, with corresponding grant numbers R01-MH54907, R01-AI081600, R01-GM078986; the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; the Cancer Research Institute; the National Science Foundation; the Howard Hughes Medical Institute; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada; the John Templeton Foundation; and J. Epstein.

Currently, an estimated 8 million of the more than 34 million people in the world living with HIV are taking antiretroviral therapy to keep their disease in check. An estimated 1,178,000 in the United States are infected, including 23,000 in the state of Maryland.

Journal Reference:

  1. Daniel I S Rosenbloom, Alison L Hill, S Alireza Rabi, Robert F Siliciano, Martin A Nowak. Antiretroviral dynamics determines HIV evolution and predicts therapy outcomeNature Medicine, 2012; DOI: 10.1038/nm.2892

Mathematics or Memory? Study Charts Collision Course in Brain (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 3, 2012) — You already know it’s hard to balance your checkbook while simultaneously reflecting on your past. Now, investigators at the Stanford University School of Medicine — having done the equivalent of wire-tapping a hard-to-reach region of the brain — can tell us how this impasse arises.

The area in red is the posterior medial cortex, the portion of the brain that is most active when people recall details of their own pasts. (Credit: Courtesy of Josef Parvizi)

The researchers showed that groups of nerve cells in a structure called the posterior medial cortex, or PMC, are strongly activated during a recall task such as trying to remember whether you had coffee yesterday, but just as strongly suppressed when you’re engaged in solving a math problem.

The PMC, situated roughly where the brain’s two hemispheres meet, is of great interest to neuroscientists because of its central role in introspective activities.

“This brain region is famously well-connected with many other regions that are important for higher cognitive functions,” said Josef Parvizi, MD, PhD, associate professor of neurology and neurological sciences and director of Stanford’s Human Intracranial Cognitive Electrophysiology Program. “But it’s very hard to reach. It’s so deep in the brain that the most commonly used electrophysiological methods can’t access it.”

In a study published online Sept. 3 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Parvizi and his Stanford colleagues found a way to directly and sensitively record the output from this ordinarily anatomically inaccessible site in human subjects. By doing so, the researchers learned that particular clusters of nerve cells in the PMC that are most active when you are recalling details of your own past are strongly suppressed when you are performing mathematical calculations. Parvizi is the study’s senior author. The first and second authors, respectively, are postdoctoral scholars Brett Foster, PhD, and Mohammed Dastjerdi, PhD.

Much of our understanding of what roles different parts of the brain play has been obtained by techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, which measures the amount of blood flowing through various brain regions as a proxy for activity in those regions. But changes in blood flow are relatively slow, making fMRI a poor medium for listening in on the high-frequency electrical bursts (approximately 200 times per second) that best reflect nerve-cell firing. Moreover, fMRI typically requires pooling images from several subjects into one composite image. Each person’s brain physiognomy is somewhat different, so the blending blurs the observable anatomical coordinates of a region of interest.

Nonetheless, fMRI imaging has shown that the PMC is quite active in introspective processes such as autobiographical memory processing (“I ate breakfast this morning”) or daydreaming, and less so in external sensory processing (“How far away is that pedestrian?”). “Whenever you pay attention to the outside world, its activity decreases,” said Parvizi.

To learn what specific parts of this region are doing during, say, recall versus arithmetic requires more-individualized anatomical resolution than an fMRI provides. Otherwise, Parvizi said, “if some nerve-cell populations become less active and others more active, it all washes out, and you see no net change.” So you miss what’s really going on.

For this study, the Stanford scientists employed a highly sensitive technique to demonstrate that introspective and externally focused cognitive tasks directly interfere with one another, because they impose opposite requirements on the same brain circuitry.

The researchers took advantage of a procedure performed on patients who were being evaluated for brain surgery at the Stanford Epilepsy Monitoring Unit, associated with Stanford University Medical Center. These patients were unresponsive to drug therapy and, as a result, suffered continuing seizures. The procedure involves temporarily removing small sections of a patient’s skull, placing a thin plastic film containing electrodes onto the surface of the brain near the suspected point of origin of that patient’s seizure (the location is unique to each patient), and then monitoring electrical activity in that region for five to seven days — all of it spent in a hospital bed. Once the epilepsy team identifies the point of origin of any seizures that occurred during that time, surgeons can precisely excise a small piece of tissue at that position, effectively breaking the vicious cycle of brain-wave amplification that is a seizure.

Implanting these electrode packets doesn’t mean piercing the brain or individual cells within it. “Each electrode picks up activity from about a half-million nerve cells,” Parvizi said. “It’s more like dotting the ceiling of a big room, filled with a lot of people talking, with multiple microphones. We’re listening to the buzz in the room, not individual conversations. Each microphone picks up the buzz from a different bunch of partiers. Some groups are more excited and talking more loudly than others.”

The experimenters found eight patients whose seizures were believed to be originating somewhere near the brain’s midline and who, therefore, had had electrode packets placed in the crevasse dividing the hemispheres. (The brain’s two hemispheres are spaced far enough apart to slip an electrode packet between them without incurring damage.)

The researchers got permission from these eight patients to bring in laptop computers and put the volunteers through a battery of simple tasks requiring modest intellectual effort. “It can be boring to lie in bed waiting seven days for a seizure to come,” said Foster. “Our studies helped them pass the time.” The sessions lasted about an hour.

On the laptop would appear a series of true/false statements falling into one of four categories. Three categories were self-referential, albeit with varying degrees of specificity. Most specific was so-called “autobiographical episodic memory,” an example of which might be: “I drank coffee yesterday.” The next category of statements was more generic: “I eat a lot of fruit.” The most abstract category, “self-judgment,” comprised sentences along the lines of: “I am honest.”

A fourth category differed from the first three in that it consisted of arithmetical equations such as: 67 + 6 = 75. Evaluating such a statement’s truth required no introspection but, instead, an outward, more sensory orientation.

For each item, patients were instructed to press “1” if a statement was true, “2” if it was false.

Significant portions of the PMC that were “tapped” by electrodes became activated during self-episodic memory processing, confirming the PMC’s strong role in recall of one’s past experiences. Interestingly, true/false statements involving less specifically narrative recall — such as, “I eat a lot of fruit” — induced relatively little activity. “Self-judgment” statements — such as, “I am attractive” — elicited none at all. Moreover, whether a volunteer judged a statement to be true or false made no difference with respect to the intensity, location or duration of electrical activity in activated PMC circuits.

This suggests, both Parvizi and Foster said, that the PMC is not the brain’s “center of self-consciousness” as some have proposed, but is more specifically engaged in constructing autobiographical narrative scenes, as occurs in recall or imagination.

Foster, Dastjerdi and Parvizi also found that the PMC circuitry activated by a recall task took close to a half-second to fire up, ruling out the possibility that this circuitry’s true role was in reading or making sense of the sentence on the screen. (These two activities are typically completed within the first one-fifth of a second or so.) Once activated, these circuits remained active for a full second.

Yet all the electrodes that lit up during the self-episodic condition were conspicuously deactivated during arithmetic calculation. In fact, the circuits being monitored by these electrodes were not merely passively silent, but actively suppressed, said Parvizi. “The more a circuit is activated during autobiographical recall, the more it is suppressed during math. It’s essentially impossible to do both at once.”

The study was funded by the National Institutes of Health, with partial sponsorship from the Stanford Institute for NeuroInnovation and Translational Neuroscience.

Research Reveals Contrasting Consequences of a Warmer Earth (Science Daily)

ScienceDaily (Sep. 3, 2012) — A new study, by scientists from the Universities of York, Glasgow and Leeds, involving analysis of fossil and geological records going back 540 million years, suggests that biodiversity on Earth generally increases as the planet warms.

New research involving analysis of fossil and geological records going back 540 million years suggests that biodiversity on Earth generally increases as the planet warms. (Credit: © mozZz / Fotolia)

But the research says that the increase in biodiversity depends on the evolution of new species over millions of years, and is normally accompanied by extinctions of existing species. The researchers suggest that present trends of increasing temperature are unlikely to boost global biodiversity in the short term because of the long timescales necessary for new forms to evolve. Instead, the speed of current change is expected to cause diversity loss.

The study which is published inProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) says that while warm periods in the geological past experienced increased extinctions, they also promoted the origination of new species, increasing overall biodiversity.

The new research is a refinement of an earlier study that analysed biodiversity over the same time interval, but with a less sophisticated data set, and concluded that a warming climate led to drops in overall diversity. Using the improved data that are now available, the researchers re-examined patterns of marine invertebrate biodiversity over the last 540 million years.

Lead author, Dr Peter Mayhew, of the Department of Biology at York, said: “The improved data give us a more secure picture of the impact of warmer temperatures on marine biodiversity and they show that, as before, there is more extinction and origination in warm geological periods. But, overall, warm climates seem to boost biodiversity in the very long run, rather than reducing it.”

Dr Alistair McGowan, of the School of Geographical and Earth Sciences at the University of Glasgow said: “The previous findings always seemed paradoxical. Ecological studies show that species richness consistently increases towards the Equator, where it is warm, yet the relationship between biodiversity and temperature through time appeared to be the opposite. Our new results reverse these conclusions and bring them into line with the ecological pattern.”

Professor Tim Benton, of the Faculty of Biological Sciences at the University of Leeds, added: “Science progresses by constantly re-examining conclusions in the light of better data. Our results seem to show that temperature improves biodiversity through time as well as across space. However, they do not suggest that current global warming is good for existing species. Increases in global diversity take millions of years, and in the meantime we expect extinctions to occur.”

Pesquisa indica relação entre inclusão digital e felicidade (Exame)

JC e-mail 4576, de 04 de Setembro de 2012

Alguns anos atrás, foi muito divulgado um estudo que mostrava uma relação direta entre penetração de telefonia móvel e crescimento de Produto Interno Bruto (PIB) de um país. Agora, uma pesquisa realizada pela FGV indica uma correlação entre acesso a meios de comunicação (Internet, telefonias fixa e móvel) e felicidade.

O estudo reuniu dados globais do Gallup e, no caso brasileiro, do IBGE, e descobriu que, em média, a cada 10 pontos percentuais de penetração de Internet, telefonia fixa e/ou móvel há um aumento de 2.2 pontos percentuais na felicidade de um país.

“Entretanto, não se pode dizer que inclusão digitaltraz felicidade ou vice-versa”, ressalta Marcelo Neri, pesquisador da FGV que conduziu o estudo e apresentou os dados durante o painel “O crescimento do Brasil e as TICs”, durante o 56º Painel Telebrasil, na última quinta-feira (30), em Brasília. Neri alertou também que no Brasil, especificamente, a correlação não se apresentou tão claramente. Nos próximos dias, Neri deve tomar posse como presidente do Ipea.

Para esse levantamento, Neri e sua equipe criou um indicador, chamado ITIC (Indicador de Telefonia, Internet e Celular), que mescla as penetrações dos três referidos serviços. Em uma lista de 158 países, o Brasil ocupa a 72a posição, com ITIC de 51,25%. A média mundial é de 49,1%. O ranking é liderado por Suécia (95.8%), Cingapura (95.5%) e Islândia (95.5%). Nos últimos lugares estão República Centro Africana (5.5%), Burundi (5.75%) e Etiópia (8.25%). Se retirada a penetração de telefonia celular, o ITIC dos países africanos cai drasticamente. No caso da República Centro Africana, passa a ser de 0.7%.

Em sua palestra, Neri apresentou mapas do Brasil mostrando a evolução da penetração dos três serviços ao longo da última década, com destaque para a telefonia celular, cujos resultados chamam mais a atenção. “A plataforma celular pode promover a inclusão digital pois hoje dois terços dos pobres no Brasil têm um telefone móvel”, disse o pesquisador. Nesse dado, é considerado pobre quem vive com renda mensal familiar per capita abaixo de R$ 150.

No caso dos PCs, Hélio Rotenberg, presidente do grupo Positivo, disse que a revolução no Brasil aconteceu nos últimos sete anos, período em que o país subiu para a terceira colocação entre os maiores mercados de computadores pessoais no mundo. A razão para isso foi não apenas o barateamento do equipamento em função de políticas de desoneração, mas o acesso a financiamento, explicou.

“A grande virada aconteceu com o PC das Casas Bahia, vendido em 10 ou mais vezes”, afirmou. O mesmo Rotenberg, contudo, pontuou que a tecnologia não é a salvação para a educação no Brasil. “Temos problemas estruturais a serem resolvidos. Enquanto o professor não estiver preparado, não tem tecnologia que vá ajudar”, comentou.

Desigualdade – A diretora da LCA Consultores, Cláudia Viegas, alertou para o risco de o avanço tecnológico no Brasil agravar a desigualdade social, caso seja feito de maneira desordenada. “É claro que o número de acessos vai crescer. A questão é como isso vai acontecer ao longo de todo o País. Pode ocorrer um efeito perverso, agravando a desigualdade social em vez de reduzi-la”, disse.

Ela se refere ao risco de parte da população brasileira não acompanhar o avanço tecnológico e ficar ainda mais alijada do desenvolvimento econômico do País. Célio Bozola, presidente do Prodesp, responsável pelo projeto Poupa Tempo, confirma que nem mesmo no estado de São Paulo o acesso à tecnologia está distribuído de forma homogênea.

Para Cláudia, da LCA, é fundamental que haja uma política pública direcionadora do processo de inclusão digital no Brasil. Sobre a possibilidade de ajuda estatal para esse fim, o presidente da Telebrasil e da Telefônica/Vivo, Antônio Carlos Valente, comentou: “não tenho nada contra apoio estatal. Mas há diversas formas de apoio estatal. Uma delas é a disponibilidade de fundos públicos”.

(Fonte: Exame)

Wild Weather A New Normal And Insurance Companies Must Act (Forbes)

GREEN TECH

Mindy Lubber, Contributor – President, Ceres and Director, Investor Network on Climate Risk (INCR)

8/30/2012 @ 9:01AM

Damage after Hurricane IreneSevere weather has been clobbering insurance companies, and the headlines just keep coming. “Drought to cost insurers billions in losses,” said the Financial Times a few days ago. “Many U.S. hurricanes would cause $10b or more in losses in 2012 dollars,” the Boston Globe said about the latest hurricane forecasts. “June’s severe weather losses near $2 billion in U.S.,” said the Insurance Journal earlier this year.

This year’s extreme events follow the world’s costliest year ever for natural catastrophe losses, including $32 billion in 2011 insured losses in the United States due to extreme weather events. This is no short-term uptick: insured losses due to extreme weather have been trending upward for 30 years, as the climate has changed and populations in coastal areas and other vulnerable places have grown.

The U.S. insurance industry continues to be “surprised” by extreme weather losses. But the truth is that weather extremes are no longer surprising. Back-to-back summers of devastating droughts, record heat waves and raging wildfires are clear evidence of this. Last year’s crazy weather triggered near record underwriting losses and numerous credit rating downgrades among U.S. property and casualty insurers.

And in the face of a changing climate, such events can be expected to increase in number, and severity.  It’s time for insurance companies to recognize this new normal, and incorporate it into their business planning—for the sake of their shareholders, their industry’s survival, and the stability of the U.S. economy.

Ceres, a business sustainability leadership organization, has been researching the effects of climate change and severe weather on the insurance sector. In a report to be released next month, titled Stormy Future for U.S. Property and Casualty Insurers, we will detail our recommendations for insurance companies, investors and regulators to help strengthen the insurance sector so it can better weather the challenges ahead.

For insurance companies, using catastrophe models that can better anticipate probable effects of climate change on extreme weather events are key. And especially in vulnerable markets, insurers’ guidance on insurability should inform decisions that communities make on land-use planning, infrastructure decisions, and building codes.

Insurers can also encourage the transition to a low-carbon economy—one built to forestall the worst effects of climate change—by offering products and services that encourage clean and efficient energy, encouraging customers to adopt climate-change mitigation plans, and encouraging policymakers to act to reduce carbon pollution.

This would not be the first time insurance companies have helped change American society. By making insurance contingent on smoke detectors, insurers cut down on deaths and losses from building fires. By backing seat belt laws and including seat belt violations in rate calculations, they helped save lives on the road.

By engaging fully on climate change and energy policy—inside and outside of the boardroom – insurance companies can lead the way once again. It would be the right thing to do, both for their business, and for our future.

Viveiros de Castro na SBPSP (Blog Ponto de Vista)

Por Amenéris Maroni

31 de agosto de 2012

A Revista Brasileira de Psicanálise[1], volume 44, cujo tema é ¨Alteridade¨, nos contempla com a ida de Viveiros de Castro à Sociedade Brasileira de Psicanálise/São Paulo para uma palestra intitulada  ¨O Anti- Narciso: lugar e função da antropologia no mundo contemporâneo¨. Parodiando G. Deleuze e F.Guattari, Viveiros de Castro abre a conferência brincando que Anti-Narciso é o nome de um livro que ele jamais escreverá –  contrapondo-o ao Anti-Édipo. O Anti- Édipo é uma crítica radical ao Édipo e, então, à psicanálise, o Anti-Narciso: uma crítica e uma grande reviravolta em relação à antropologia clássica. Só essa brincadeira deveria deixar de sobreaviso os psicanalistas: afinal sabe-se o papel que teve o Anti-Édipo na filosofia e na cultura – muito embora tenha sido pouco apreciado na psicanálise! O Anti-Narciso, suponho, teria o mesmo valor na antropologia: para a antropologia contemporânea proposta por Viveiros de Castro, Narciso  já não seria a figura central na relação com o outro-nativo!

Narciso – Caravaggio

Os psicanalistas – nos comentários que se seguiram à palestra de Viveiros de Castro –  não parecem ter compreendido a brincadeira. Será que leram o  Anti-Édipo?

O antropólogo, professor de etnologia do Museu Nacional, levou para a Sociedade Brasileira de Psicanálise temas inquietantes frutos da ¨nova antropologia¨. Nas linhas que seguem, discuto algumas das questões apresentadas pelo antropólogo aos psicanalistas e, desde já, chamo a atenção do leitor para o silêncio e o esvaziamento – no mal sentido – com que essas proposições foram recebidas pelos psicanalistas. Nos comentários à palestra do antropólogo, as evasivas,  a incompreensão frente às questões propostas  chamaram a minha atenção. Sem dúvida as questões postas em discussão pelo antropólogo são difíceis, mas absolutamente centrais frente à crise ecológica e cultural que o ocidente atravessa. Deveriam então, ao meu ver, ter suscitado interesse, desafios de compreensão; muito ao contrário,  os psicanalistas não se deixaram afetar minimamente pelas questões.  Vamos então às inquietantes questões do etnólogo.

O antropólogo Eduardo Viveiros de Castro

A reviravolta proposta pela nova antropologia

 A antropologia classicamente gira em torno da questão  ¨quem somos nós¨ e o que os outros não tem que os tornam ¨diferentes de nós¨. O que distingue o sujeito do discurso antropológico de tudo aquilo que não é ele, isto é, tudo aquilo que não é ¨nós¨: o não ocidental, o não moderno, ou o não humano? Perguntar o que nos faz diferentes dos outros – vários outros – já é uma resposta, porque o que importa não são eles, e, sim, nós. A antropologia clássica se alimentou desses grandes divisores: nós e os outros, os humanos e os animais, os ocidentais e os não ocidentais. Na antropologia clássica o antropólogo já sabe a resposta e quer ver simplesmente  ¨como a resposta dos outros se adéqua à resposta que ele já tem¨[2] Nessa antropologia, por suposto, Narciso reina soberano; é intrinsecamente narcísica porque nós ocidentais é quem, a grosso modo, temos as perguntas – porque sempre entendemos que as nossas perguntas são as perguntas que todo ser humano faz, e por aí vai.

I) Ora, o gesto inicial que funda a antropologia contemporânea é a recusa da questão: ¨o que é próprio do homem¨? ¨o que é o homem?¨ De repente parece que a antropologia percebeu a armadilha implícita nessa pergunta. Pois respondê-la é seguir repetindo que ¨o próprio do homem é não ter nada de próprio¨, que o homem se caracteriza justamente por sua indeterminação. Nas palavras de Viveiros de Castro: …¨O homem é aquele ser a quem, por chegar por último na criação, foi dado o poder de ter todos os poderes e, portanto, o homem não tem nada de próprio¨. Ora, é exatamente isto, ¨não ter nada de próprio¨ que parece dar ao homem direito ilimitado sobre as propriedades alheias. Prossegue o antropólogo: … ¨Isto é uma maneira de dizer que estamos numa crise ecológica gravíssima, que é uma crise cultural, e que surge precisamente por termos colocado demais a questão ´O que é próprio do homem?´ ou ´O que nos torna tão especiais?´ […] Essa idéia de que o próprio do homem é não ter nada de próprio é uma resposta que já tem milênios na nossa tradição ocidental, e que justifica o antropocentrismo. As idéias de ausência, da finitude, da falta, seriam como que a distinção que a espécie carrega, esse fardo, em benefício ( diriam os cínicos) do restante da criação, à maneira de uma pesada condecoração¨[3].

Ora, é com essa pergunta e com essa proposição de homem que a psicanálise trabalha, exatamente com esse homem marcado pelo negativo, perguntei-me então porque os psicanalistas convidados a comentar a palestra do professor Viveiros de Castro não discutiram essa proposição, não refutaram e/ou no limite aceitaram tal reviravolta que com certeza situa-se no âmago da própria psicanálise! Silêncio a respeito dessa questão.

Como não poderia deixar de ser a metafísica ocidental – uma metafísica especista – está na base da antropologia e foi a responsável por todos os colonialismo que pudemos inventar. Basta que chamemos a atenção para um fato: o que a metafísica ocidental clássica entende como característica do humano é muito parecido com o que a Antropologia entendia como sendo característica do ocidental por oposição ao não ocidental! De repente fica bem claro em que barco estávamos, pois não? Para Viveiros de Castro a antropologia contemporânea começa justamente quando colocamos essas diferenças em questão, ao invés de nos refugiarmos nelas e então descobrirmos (sic) o que é próprio do homem! Cito Viveiros de Castro: … ¨Contra esses grandes divisores – nós e os outros, os humanos e os animais, os ocidentais e os não ocidentais – temos de fazer o contrário: proliferar as pequenas multiplicidades. Não o narcisismo das pequenas diferenças, aquele célebre que Freud detectou, mas o que a gente poderia chamar de o ´anti-narcisismo das variações infinitesimais´. Não se trata de forma alguma, como lembrou Derrida, de se questionar isso e pregar uma abolição de fronteiras que separam os humanos dos não humanos, as pessoas das coisas, os signos do mundo etc. As fantasias fusionais não estão em questão. Trata-se de certa maneira, de tornar infinitamente complexa essa linha que separa o humano do não humano¨[4]. Vale dizer, está na hora de a Antropologia parar de se preocupar ¨com o que é humano¨ ;  melhor seria que se preocupasse em estudar as diferenças que os humanos são capazes de operar.

Não preciso insistir que os dois psicanalistas convidados a comentar a fala do Prof. Viveiros de Castro não dirão uma única palavra a respeito da ¨metafísica especista¨ e do girar que todas as ciências humanas fazem – e em particular a psicanálise – em torno do homem! A psicanálise –  que estamos agora examinando – parece não ter nada a dizer sobre isso porque, herdeira da metafísica, é um dos dispositivos contemporâneos mais importantes da atualização dessa herança. Grosso modo, o homem é lapidado pela psicanálise para continuar exercendo-se exatamente onde está: o rei da criação, e os ocidentais, os mais humanos dentre os humanos: edipianos, supergóicos, família nuclear burguesa como ápice das proposições civilizatórias!

Seria injusto porém afirmar que também a psicanálise não apresenta ruídos em relação a essas questões. Mesmo nos seus ramos clássicos – pensemos em W.R. Bion – esses ruídos estão presentes. Hoje vertentes da psicanálise  que buscam a companhia de M. Heidegger,  de G. Deleuze, já não podem ser lidas também como insinuei acima.

II) Enfrentarei uma última questão proposta pelo Prof. Viveiros de Castro e a que mais me interessa. O antropólogo contemporâneo tem a chance de virar-se para o lado e perguntar para o índio – ou seja lá quem for o outro que ele estuda – : ¨o que é o humano¨?  e isso na expectativa de que haja respostas diferentes e o que é mais excitante – perguntas diferentes.¨E que, portanto, a questão não é de encontrar as respostas que os índios (ou seja lá quem for) dão às nossas perguntas – porque sempre entendemos que as nossas perguntas são as perguntas que todo ser humano faz – mas colocar sob suspeita este pressuposto e imaginar que talvez as perguntas, elas próprias sejam outras¨[5]

Quarup

Viveiros de Castros faz então dois chamamentos para todas as Ciências Humanas, incluindo aí a Psicologia, a Psicanálise, a Sociologia – e não só para as duas concepções radicalmente antagônicas de antropologia que teceu até agora.

1) Como funcionam de maneira geral as Ciências Humanas – incluindo a Antropologia? Aplicam conceitos que são extrínsecos ao que estamos estudando. Muitos reagirão contra, digo eu, dizendo que não é bem assim, que há uma relação dialética e até mesmo uma disjunção-tensão-conflito entre teoria e prática. Talvez os grandes teóricos consigam o tempo todo operar esses deslocamentos e essa criatividade tensionada entre teoria e prática; a maioria porém  dos ¨cientistas acadêmicos¨ operam da forma como sugere Viveiros de Castro: ¨nós temos o conceito e queremos simplesmente ver como ele é preenchido¨. Na verdade, no caso da antropologia clássica, imaginamos ¨cada sociedade como que preenchendo uma forma universal – conceito – com um conteúdo particular; esquecendo que essa forma universal é o nosso conteúdo particular¨[6]. Ora, a antropologia contemporânea propõe uma mudança – e convida todas as Ciências Humanas para trabalhar na mesma direção: ¨os procedimentos que caracterizam a investigação são conceitualmente da mesma ordem que os procedimentos investigados¨. Cito Viveiros de Castro:  ¨Se os humanos são todos iguais, é preciso que a nossa investigação seja algo da mesma natureza do que estamos investigando. Não podemos afirmar que os homens são todos iguais, por um lado, e retirar isso com a outra mão. Se os humanos são todos iguais, antropólogos estudam antropólogos, psicanalistas estudam psicanalistas, e, portanto, não há onde colocar assimetria nessa investigação¨[7].

2) A antropologia contemporânea parte do princípio fundamental de que o antropólogo  não sabe de antemão quais são os problemas que caracterizam o pensamento do Outro. E enfatize-se: este não saber não é empírico. Viveiros de Castro afirma: ¨É um não saber propriamente transcendental, uma ignorância, uma nesciência constitutiva da disciplina. ¨Eu não sei o que interessa a eles¨, e não simplesmente: Eu não sei como eles respondem ao que interessa a mim¨ […] O que a segunda concepção de Antropologia coloca em relação são problemas diferentes, não um problema único e suas diferentes soluções¨[8].  Imagine – e agora sou eu provocando – se este modo de proceder se alastrasse pelas Ciências Humanas, se no seio delas este ¨não saber propriamente transcendental¨ ganhasse um lugar de honra. Um sociólogo dirigir-se-ia a uma favela sem saber, muito ignorante a respeito de quem são os favelados e o que querem. E um psicanalista também: de fato escutaria os seus pacientes a partir desse não saber transcendental, dessa ignorância constitutiva. A fala do analisando deixaria de ser uma maneira de preencher conceitos postos de antemão. Provavelmente haveria escuta!

Em seguida, o prof. Viveiros de Castro discute o ¨pensamento ameríndio¨ e o perspectivismo. Convido meus leitores a ler a conferência completa na Revista da Sociedade.

Agora quero voltar aos comentários dos psicanalistas a respeito da conferência do Prof. Viveiros de Castro e claro farei isso com uma pergunta provocativa para os meus leitores: o que os  psicanalistas escutam, eles que representam a ¨ciência da escuta¨? Ou será que o emudecimento deles, o esvaziamento de suas falas, a ligeireza de suas proposições não estão exatamente relacionadas com as críticas que Viveiros de Castro faz à Antropologia Clássica e com ela a todas as  Ciências Humanas?

1) Psicanálise e Tempo; Psicanálise e epistemologia, hoje;

É esse o título dado por um dos psicanalistas aos seus comentários a respeito da conferência do Prof. Eduardo Viveiros de Castro.

A tendência do primeiro comentador é manter-se aferroado àantropologia clássica: parece que a idéia do ¨nós¨e dos ¨outros¨ lhe é mais acessível. Parece mesmo encantado com a diferença: como se comunicar  por meio de uma diferença e o que nos distingue dos outros. Transcrevo dois pequenos trechos para que os meus leitores tenham acesso ao trauma que a leitura me proporcionou: ¨ ´Nós´ faz referência ao sujeito do discurso, não há dúvida, que, narcisicamente, coloca tudo aquilo que não é ´nós´como sendo diferente. Convenhamos que não é tarefa fácil compreender o diferente, visto que jamais poderíamos saber como o diferente se sente, do contrário seríamos o próprio diferente e a questão permaneceria a mesma, invertida apenas¨. E ainda: ¨O pensamento do prof. Viveiros convida-nos a questionar e, dentro do possível, abrir mão de nossos entraves narcísicos, ou ao menos do que for possível abrir mão nesses entraves, o que é necessário para que a humildade possa surgir e com ela o espaço para sentir e pensar livremente¨[9].  E continua: ¨Haveria algo próprio do ser humano?  O que nos distinguiria do restante da criação? – questiona o professor, ao mesmo tempo em que aponta para a necessidade de descartarmos essa questão para podermos seguir adiante, sem desconsiderarmos nossa essência, mas também sem hipocrisias narcisistas. E sem hipocrisias a fronteira se faz delgada, frágil, tênue, seja do ponto de vista dos estudos sobre o genoma, seja a partir da própria observação despreconceitualizada¨[10] e em seguida o psicanalista dá muitos exemplos de chipanzés e de macacos prego – tudo isso, claro, para a minha surpresa!

O  psicanalista didata da Sociedade Brasileira de Psicanálise poderia defender a antropologia clássica contra a antropologia contemporânea trazida para a discussão pelo prof. Viveiros de Castro, com certeza era um direito seu, mas era preciso que ele primeiro compreendesse a discussão, ou melhor era preciso que ele tivesse uma capacidade de escuta sustentada, talvez, na ¨ignorância constitutiva¨ proposta por Viveiros de Castro. Além de traumatizada desenvolvi uma fantasia algo persecutória durante a leitura: e se eu estivesse naquele divã, aí meu Deus do céu, o que aconteceria?!

Vou fechando não sem antes passar por algumas questões levantadas pelo psicanalista que explicitam uma  escuta algo saturada: …¨Esta complexidade relaciona-se ao que o prof. Viveiros chama de homo duplex, ou seja, temos um corpo biológico, fruto da criação e com a qual nos misturamos, mas temos ainda uma alma cultural produzida por este corpo e que se desenvolve e se define por uma certa e razoável falta. Lembrando que a certa e razoável falta precisa ser suportada para que o desenvolvimento se dê também de maneira minimamente razoável e para que as diferenças não sejam extintas¨[…] ¨Mudando a perspectiva, o prof. Viveiros nos traz ainda a visão indígena de  mundo, em um universo encantado, animado, fantasmático, onde tudo é gente, mais próximo do que conhecemos como Princípio do Prazer e menos mutantes do que nós, civilizados, quer dizer, mais criaturas da natureza e menos homo duplexNão sei se isso os torna menos complexos, mas, segundo o palestrante, é um mundo mais perigoso¨…[11]

Como já disse, parece que falta a esse psicanalista aquele ¨não saber propriamente transcedental¨, aquela ¨ignorância constitutiva¨ proposta por Viveiros de Castro! Revelar-se-iam condições para percepções novas, condições para uma escuta não saturada  trazendo à tona novas possibilidades de compreensão e não a sobreposição do muito velho: o ¨preenchimento conceitual¨ a que antes se referia o antropólogo.

2) Antropologia ataca o narcisismo

O segundo comentador se saiu muito melhor. Além de psicanalista, ele  é também antropólogo, e, então, com certeza, a discussão proposta por Viveiros de Castro lhe é mais familiar. Ele é inteligente, o segundo comentador,  e tenta aproximar rapidamente  a antropologia da psicanálise e, todavia, não se aventura a discutir a proposta de Viveiros de Castro, pois este fez uma crítica interna ao modo da antropologia clássica proceder. Ao comentador caberia acompanhar o movimento de desconstrução da própria antropologia e só então aproximar – se fosse o caso – as duas disciplinas – antropologia e psicanálise –  que sabidamente resistem ao diálogo. Cito dois trechos que deixam claro, ao meu ver, como, evitando a discussão central proposta por Viveiros de Castro, ele aproxima a antropologia da psicanálise: ¨Pressuposto básico: adotamos, nós, psicanalistas, e eles, antropólogos, pronomes pessoais de epistemologias diversas. No exercício da Psicanálise, como é notório, o campo de interesse é  o ¨eu¨ individual, o inconsciente dinâmico e as relações vinculares, incluindo, aí, uma ¨ferramenta¨ essencial para a abordagem: outro ser humano que, autorizado, dará diferentes e novas versões sobre nós mesmos. Os antropólogos, por seu lado, tratam do ¨nós¨, seres humanos agrupados em sociedade, em todas as suas múltiplas dimensões. Entretanto, fato comum às técnicas, nas duas disciplinas, é o escrutínio das diferenças como único caminho para a compreensão e desenvolvimento. Trocando em miúdos: para nos compreendermos – seres humanos, individualmente, ou em grupo, – necessitamos de um ¨outro¨ ( outro ser humano ou outro agrupamento humano); além disso – dura realidade! – este ¨outro¨ será sempre um estranho¨[12]

Cito ainda, antes de concluir, um outro trecho do comentador; nele, o autor interpreta o que seria a antropologia contemporânea: ¨Relendo algumas vezes a transcrição da palestra do Eduardo, entendo que a idéia central do texto, que se encaixaria no âmbito da filosofia da etnologia, seja propor um novo viés de observação antropológica, de um ângulo de observação ¨invertido-revertido¨, ou seja, a partir do objeto observado, e pelo avesso. Uma maneira de olhar menos investida de ¨amor próprio¨- se é que podemos assim falar -, visando reduzir as influências do observador autorreferente. Essa inversão-reversão de perspectiva teria uma equivalência metafórica com a álgebra elementar, no mesmo sentido que a expressão { -1/x}. Em psicanálise, o recurso da análise pessoal do analista ( componente do tripé essencial) contribui, sobremaneira, para a diminuição das interferências pessoais do observador sobre o que é observado¨[13].

E, então, o comentador pergunta: ¨E, em relação a nós, psicanalistas, que tipo de interesse a palestra do Eduardo poderia ter? Uma muito boa pergunta, e, todavia, a resposta está bem longe de enfrentar o problema proposto por Viveiros de Castro: …¨Na minha maneira de ver, reafirmar a importância das descobertas freudianas (narcisismo, inconsciente, transferência, etc) adaptados a outros campos de saber, num exercício de Psicanálise Aplicada¨[14].

Com certeza este divã seria, ele também, bem pouco acolhedor para mim. Uma das coisas simples que aprendi ao longo da minha já longa vida é que é um prazer, um deleite enunciar uma pergunta e sentir que o meu interlocutor pode acolhê-la, compreendê-la, às vezes não respondê-la, mas sentir que a comunicação se deu. Se isto não acontece, e não acontece repetidamente, a folie a deux rapidamente se instala.

Sinto-me agora convidada a fazer um casamento mais feliz entre a Psicanálise e o anti-humanismo. Voltarei pois a esta discussão.


[1] Volume 44, número 4, 15-26 – 2010, intitulada ¨Alteridade¨.

[2] Idem, ibidem, p. 17.

[3] Idem, ibidem, p. 16.

[4] Idem, ibidem, p. 17.

[5] Idem, ibidem, p. 18.

[6] Idem, ibidem, p. 18.

[7] Idem, ibidem, p. 18.

[8] Idem, ibidem, p. 18.

[9] Idem, ibidem, p. 27.

[10] Idem, ibidem, p. 28.

[11] Idem, ibidem, p. 29

[12] Idem, ibidem, p. 32.

[13] Idem, ibidem, p. 33.

[14] Idem, ibidem, p. 33.

Livros sobre a violência e as torcidas de futebol

Gol, guerra e gozo: o prazer pode golear a violênciaGol, Guerra E Gozo – o Prazer Pode Golear a Violência

Por Joaquim Z. B. Motta

Casa do Psicólogo, 2005

 

 

 

 

 

A violência e o futebol: dos estudos clássicos aos dias de hoje

Por Maurício Murad

FGV Editora, 2007