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Anthropologist, professor at the Federal University of São Paulo

Argentine and Brazilian doctors suspect mosquito insecticide as cause of microcephaly (The Ecologist)

Claire Robinson / GMWatch

10th February 2016

With the proposed connection between the Zika virus and Brazil’s outbreak of microcephaly in new born babies looking increasingly tenuous, Latin American doctors are proposing another possible cause: Pyriproxyfen, a pesticide used in Brazil since 2014 to arrest the development of mosquito larvae in drinking water tanks. Might the ‘cure’ in fact be the poison?

Malformations detected in thousands of children from pregnant women living in areas where the Brazilian state added Pyriproxyfen to drinking water are not a coincidence, even though the Ministry of Health places direct blame on the Zika virus.

The World Health Organization view that the microcephaly outbreak in Brazil’s impoverished northeast is caused by the Zika virus has, so far, received few challenges.

Brazil’s Health Minister, Marcelo Castro, has gone so far as to say that he has “100% certainty”that there is a link between Zika and microcephaly, a birth defect in which babies are born with small heads.

The view is widely supported in the medical community worldwide, including by the US’s influential Center for Disease Control. But there is no hard evidence of the link, rather a mixture of epidemiological indications and circumstantial evidence.

One of the key scientific papers, by A S Oliveira Melo et al in the journal Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology, found Zika virus in the amniotic fluids and other tissues of the affected babies and their mothers. But only two women were examined, far too small a number to establish a statistically significant link.

The New York Times also reported on 3rd February on the outcome of analyses by Brazil’s Health Ministry: “Of the cases examined so far, 404 have been confirmed as having microcephaly. Only 17 of them tested positive for the Zika virus. But the government and many researchers say that number may be largely irrelevant, because their tests would find the presence of the virus in only a tiny percentage of cases.”

And last weekend, the most powerful indicator yet that the microcephaly may have another cause altogether was announced by Colombia’s president, Juan Manuel Santos, as reported by the Washington Post. Colombian public health officials, stated Santos, have so far diagnosed 3,177 pregnant women with the Zika virus- but in no case had microcephaly been observed in the foetus.

Argentine doctors: it’s the insecticide

Now a new report has been published by the Argentine doctors’ organisation, Physicians in the Crop-Sprayed Towns (PCST), [1] which not only challenges the theory that the Zika virus epidemic in Brazil is the cause of the increase in microcephaly among newborns, but proposes an alternative explanation.

According to PCST, the Ministry failed to recognise that in the area where most sick people live, a chemical larvicide that produces malformations in mosquitoes was introduced into the drinking water supply in 2014.

This pesticide, Pyriproxyfen, is used in a state-controlled programme aimed at eradicating disease-carrying mosquitos. The Physicians added that the Pyriproxyfen is manufactured by Sumitomo Chemical, a Japanese ‘strategic partner‘ of Monsanto. – a company they have learned to distrust due to the vast volume of the company’s pesticides sprayed onto Argentina’s cropland.

Pyriproxyfen is a growth inhibitor of mosquito larvae, which alters the development process from larva to pupa to adult, thus generating malformations in developing mosquitoes and killing or disabling them. It acts as an insect juvenile hormone or juvenoid, and has the effect of inhibiting the development of adult insect characteristics (for example, wings and mature external genitalia) and reproductive development.

The chemical has a relatively low risk profile as shown by its WHO listing, with low acute toxicity. Tests carried out in a variety of animals by Sumitomo found that it was not a teratogen (did not cause birth defects) in the mammals it was tested on. However this cannot be taken as a completely reliable indicator of its effects in humans – especially in the face of opposing evidence.

The PCST commented: “Malformations detected in thousands of children from pregnant women living in areas where the Brazilian state added Pyriproxyfen to drinking water are not a coincidence, even though the Ministry of Health places a direct blame on the Zika virus for this damage.”

They also noted that Zika has traditionally been held to be a relatively benign disease that has never before been associated with birth defects, even in areas where it infects 75% of the population.

Brazilian doctors also suspect pyriproxyfen

Pyriproxyfen is a relatively new introduction to the Brazilian environment; the microcephaly increase is a relatively new phenomenon. So the larvicide seems a plausible causative factor in microcephaly – far more so than GM mosquitos, which some have blamed for the Zika epidemic and thus for the birth defects.

The PCST report, which also addresses the Dengue fever epidemic in Brazil, concurs with the findings of a separate report on the Zika outbreak by the Brazilian doctors’ and public health researchers’ organisation, Abrasco. [2]

Abrasco also names Pyriproxyfen as a possible cause of the microcephaly. It condemns the strategy of chemical control of Zika-carrying mosquitoes, which it says is contaminating the environment as well as people and is not decreasing the numbers of mosquitoes.

Instead Abrasco suggests that this strategy is in fact driven by the commercial interests of the chemical industry, which it says is deeply integrated into the Latin American ministries of health, as well as the World Health Organization and the Pan American Health Organisation.

Abrasco names the British GM insect company Oxitec as part of the corporate lobby that is distorting the facts about Zika to suit its own profit-making agenda. Oxitec sells GM mosquitoes engineered for sterility and markets them as a disease-combatting product – a strategy condemned by the Argentine Physicians as “a total failure, except for the company supplying mosquitoes.”

Both the Brazilian and Argentine doctors’ and researchers’ associations agree that poverty is a key neglected factor in the Zika epidemic. Abrasco condemned the Brazilian government for its “deliberate concealment” of economic and social causes: “In Argentina and across America the poorest populations with the least access to sanitation and safe water suffer most from the outbreak.” PCST agrees, stating, “The basis of the progress of the disease lies in inequality and poverty.”

Abrasco adds that the disease is closely linked to environmental degradation: floods caused by logging and the massive use of herbicides on (GM) herbicide-tolerant soy crops – in short, “the impacts of extractive industries.”

The notion that environmental degradation may a factor in the spread of Zika finds backing in the view of Dino Martins, PhD, a Kenyan entomologist. Martins said that “the explosion of mosquitoes in urban areas, which is driving the Zika crisis” is caused by “a lack of natural diversity that would otherwise keep mosquito populations under control, and the proliferation of waste and lack of disposal in some areas which provide artificial habitat for breeding mosquitoes.”

Community-based actions

The Argentine Physicians believe that the best defence against Zika is “community-based actions”. An example of such actions is featured in a BBC News report on the Dengue virus in El Salvador.

A favourite breeding place for disease-carrying mosquitoes is storage containers of standing water. El Salvadorians have started keeping fish in the water containers, and the fish eat the mosquito larvae. Dengue has vanished along with the mosquitoes that transmit the disease. And so far, the locals don’t have any Zika cases either.

Simple yet effective programmes like this are in danger of being neglected in Brazil in favour of the corporate-backed programmes of pesticide spraying and releasing GM mosquitoes. The latter is completely unproven and the former may be causing far more serious harm than the mosquitoes that are being targeted.

 


 

Claire Robinson is an editor at GMWatch.

This article was originally published by GMWatch. This version includes additional reporting by The Ecologist.

Notes

1. ‘Report from Physicians in the Crop-Sprayed Towns regarding Dengue-Zika, microcephaly, and mass-spraying with chemical poisons‘. 2016. Physicians in the Crop-Sprayed Towns.

2. ‘Nota técnica e carta aberta à população: Microcefalia e doenças vetoriais relacionadas ao Aedes aegypti: os perigos das abordagens com larvicidas e nebulização química – fumacê‘. January 2016. GT Salud y Ambiente. Asociación Brasileña de Salud Colectiva. ABRASCO.

 

Nota técnica sobre microcefalia e doenças vetoriais relacionadas ao Aedes aegypti: os perigos das abordagens com larvicidas e nebulizações químicas – fumacê (Abrasco)

Grupos Temáticos da Abrasco produzem Nota Técnica com reflexões, questionamentos e proposições de orientação

Nós, sanitaristas e pesquisadores da Saúde Coletiva que atuamos no GTs Saúde e Ambiente; Saúde do Trabalhador; Vigilância Sanitária; Promoção da Saúde e Desenvolvimento Sustentável; Educação Popular e Saúde e Alimentação e Nutrição em Saúde Coletiva da Associação Brasileira de Saúde Coletiva (Abrasco), vimos a público porque temos o dever de elaborar reflexões, questionamentos e fazer proposições que possam orientar as políticas públicas na intervenção preventiva frente às epidemias de microcefalia e doenças vetoriais relacionadas ao Aedes aegypti. Dentre os eventos sanitários clinicamente visíveis, as problemáticas relacionadas às doenças vetoriais surgem como  um dos mais importantes eventos sanitários pós Segunda Guerra Mundial.

Como se sabe, foi decisão do Ministério da Saúde (MS) imputar a associação da epidemia de microcefalia à infecção materno-fetal pelo vírus da Zika, supostamente introduzido no Brasil em 2014, no Nordeste brasileiro. Diante da inusitada incidência foi determinado o estado de Emergência em Saúde Pública de Importância Nacional, desencadeando a intensificação do controle vetorial do Aedes aegypti, dentro da mesma abordagem utilizada para Dengue, que há cerca 40 anos é realizada sem efetividade para os objetivos pretendidos.

Contexto do surgimento da epidemia

O quadro sanitário no qual emerge a epidemia de microcefalia deve ser analisado considerando-se os graves problemas que estão presentes na realidade socioambiental em que ocorreram os casos e no modelo operacional de controle vetorial. A distribuição espacial por local de moradia das mães dos recém-nascidos com microcefalia (ou suspeitos) é maior nas áreas mais pobres, com urbanização precária e com saneamento ambiental inadequado, com provimento de água de forma intermitente, fato que leva essas populações ao armazenamento domiciliar inseguro de água, condição muito favorável para a reprodução do Aedes aegypti, constituindo-se em “criadouros” que não deveriam existir, e que são passíveis de eliminação mecânica.

Alguns fatos que ainda precisam ser questionados e investigados podem justificar a introdução e a disseminação do vírus Zika. É necessário avaliar quais contextos e contingências existiram e aconteceram em 2014 nos locais de aparecimento dos casos de microcefalia. Podemos aventar alguns por saltarem aos olhos, como:

1) Na região Nordeste, em especial na periferia das suas Regiões Metropolitanas, como a de Recife, pode ter havido aumento da degradação ambiental, por existirem nelas todas as condições para a manutenção da alta densidade do Aedes aegypti, pelos baixos indicadores de saneamento ambiental, relacionados ao abastecimento de água, ao esgotamento sanitário, à imensa presença de resíduos sólidos junto aos domicílios e às deficiências de drenagem de águas pluviais. A propósito desta questão, a Revista RADIS Comunicação e Saúde da Fiocruz (n.154, julho 2015) traz uma esclarecedora matéria sobre saneamento ambiental mostrando sua defasagem e os graves problemas ainda não solucionados, o que se agrava pelos indícios de que haverá um retardo de anos no Plano Nacional de Saneamento Básico (Plansab) com o ajuste fiscal.[1]

2) A utilização continuada de larvicidas químicos na água de beber dessas famílias há mais de 40 anos sem, contudo, implicar na redução do número de casos de doenças provocadas por arbovírus. Em 2014 foi introduzido na água de beber das populações nos domicílios e nas vias públicas um novo larvicida o Pyriproxyfen. Conforme orientação técnica do MS[2] esse larvicida é um análogo do hormônio juvenil ou juvenóide, tendo como mecanismo de ação a inibição do desenvolvimento das características adultas do inseto (por exemplo, asas, maturação dos órgãos reprodutivos e genitália externa), mantendo-o com aspecto “imaturo” (ninfa ou larva), quer dizer age por desregulação endócrina e é teratogênico e inibe a formação do inseto adulto.

3) A intensificação de processos migratórios pela atração de grandes empreendimentos, cujos trabalhadores passam a viver em condições sanitárias precárias nas periferias dos polos industriais (como o de Suape-PE, com trabalhadores vindos de outras regiões e estados do país e de Pecém-CE, com a presença de milhares de coreanos);

4) A Copa do Mundo de 2014, evento de massa de grande porte, teve uma subsede em Recife (Arena Pernambuco). Instalada no município de São Lourenço da Mata (IDH de 0,614), está em uma região com precárias condições sanitárias. Foi observada a maior concentração dos casos de microcefalia inicialmente notificados (600 casos suspeitos) nessas áreas;

5) Fragilidade da vigilância epidemiológica dos municípios e dos estados no diagnóstico diferencial, na investigação de arboviroses e na diferenciação entomológica;

6) As dificuldades na condução da vigilância da Zika e Chinkungunya, ao tratá-las como “dengue branda”.  Frise-se que a capacidade vetorial do Aedes aegypti para transmitir o vírus da Zyka e Chikungunya em nosso meio ainda não está devidamente estudada nem pelos entomologistas em nossos contextos socioambientais. Daí caber indagações: o que fez os casos de dengue se tornar mais graves, se antes era considerada doença benigna desde 1779 até 1950, sem provocar sequela e sem alterações hematológicas, conforme dados da OMS? Como está o sistema imunológico da população diante do modelo químico de controle vetorial e adotadas pelo MS em curso no País há cerca de 30 anos?

As estratégias adotadas pelo MS

Apesar das razões e incertezas que estão na determinação da ocorrência da epidemia de microcefalia, o caminho para o que se chama de “enfrentamento” foi o de intensificar o “combate” ao mosquito pela repetição do que vem sendo adotado há mais de 40 anos sem sucesso. Chamamos a atenção da sociedade para esta questão. Por quais razões, apesar de todos os indicadores de ineficácia, o MS continua a utilizar a mesma abordagem para o controle do mosquito transmissor do vírus da dengue, doença cuja transmissão depende também de outros elementos? Mesmo desencadeando diversas capacitações para os profissionais de saúde e trabalhando em salas de situação para aprimorar o diagnostico e a notificação de casos das novas doenças virais; permanece sem integração as ações das Vigilâncias Epidemiológica, Sanitária e a Promoção da Saúde. O problema que queremos destacar nesta Nota Técnica de alerta está na essência do modelo de controle vetorial, haja vista a intensificação do uso de larvicidas e adulticidas para o Aedes aegypti, sendo que segundo as orientações adotadas pelo MS desde 2014, retrocede-se à orientação de utilização da técnica Ultra Baixo Volume (UBV)[3] com Malathion a 30% diluído em água, abrangendo  todo território nacional.

É preciso também problematizar o uso de produtos químicos numa escala que desconsidera as vulnerabilidades biológicas e socioambientais de pessoas e comunidades. O consumo de tais substâncias pela Saúde Pública só interessa aos seus produtores e comerciantes desses venenos. São insumos produzidos por um cartel de negócios muito lucrativo, que atua em todo o mundo e que, mesmo com evidências dos riscos provocados pelos organofosforados e piretroides, dos quais se conhecem tantos efeitos deletérios, têm tido o apoio de agências internacionais de Saúde Pública, como o Fundo Rotatório da Organização Pan-Americana de Saúde (OPAS) e da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS). Uma simples consulta às fichas de segurança química de tais produtos entregues pelas empresas aos órgãos de Saúde Pública mostra que esses produtos, a exemplo do Malathion, são neurotóxicos para o sistema nervoso central e periférico, além de provocarem náusea, vômito, diarreia, dificuldade respiratória e sintomas de fraqueza muscular, inclusive nas concentrações utilizadas no controle vetorial. Quanto à toxicidade ambiental é recomendado evitar seu uso no meio ambiente, o que não tem sido observado, pois seu lançamento é feito da forma como aqui denunciamos. Tais agências se constituem em instâncias de decisão para a compra e distribuição de venenos para todos os países vinculados à Organização das Nações Unidas (ONU). Os fornecedores são os mesmos cartéis de empresas produtoras de agrotóxicos que operam na agricultura, tornando-a também tóxica e químico-dependente. Esse modelo, pós-II Guerra Mundial, destacamos, impôs-se também para o controle das doenças vetoriais em Saúde Pública.

As tecnologias de controle químico dos vetores foram introduzidas amplamente no Brasil a partir de 1968, não se podendo desconsiderar que sua origem deve-se às armas químicas de destruição em massa, amplamente utilizadas pelo exército norte-americano, naquela época, na guerra do Vietnã. A adoção da técnica de tratamento por UBV foi uma prática introduzida nesse mesmo período e, não por acaso, um dos primeiros documentos de sua normatização foi elaborado pelo Exército Americano[4].

Essa mesma lógica já está adotada para oferecer a solução mediante a transgenia e outras biotecnologias imprecisas, duvidosas e perigosas para os ecossistemas, focando a ação apenas no mosquito, sem levar em conta os efeitos em organismos não-alvo. Atenção deve ser dada a empresa inglesa OXITEC nas pesquisas e comercialização do mosquito transgênico, cuja fábrica foi implantada em Campinas-SP em 2013 e que, em 2014, obteve a autorização da CTNBio para comercialização desse Organismo Geneticamente Modificado (OGM), e sobre essa questão a Abrasco publicou Nota Técnica[5].

O foco no mosquito e as consequências para a saúde humana

O lado invisível dos danos ao ambiente e à saúde humana, decorrentes do uso de produtos químicos no controle vetorial, ainda não foi devidamente estudado ou revelado às populações vulneráveis, incluindo os trabalhadores de Saúde Pública. Seus efeitos nocivos são totalmente desconsiderados tanto no agravamento das viroses, quanto no surgimento de outras patologias tais como: alergias, imunotoxicidade, câncer, distúrbios hormonais, neurotoxicidade, dentre outras.

Frisamos o simplismo no trato da questão por parte do MS que reduz a causalidade da Dengue, da Zika e da Chicungunya, centrando as ações na tentativa de eliminar ou reduzir o vetor, o que deve ser substituído, insistimos, pela ação de medidas de cunho intersetoriais para intervir no contexto socioeconômico e ambiental. Visando eliminar o mosquito a ação orientada pelo MS acaba, também, envenenando seres humanos. Mas isto não é reconhecido: ao contrário, há uma ocultação desses perigos. As vozes oficiais repetem até tornar verdadeiros diversos absurdos como: “As doses de larvicidas são tão baixas e pouco tóxicas que podemos colocar na água de beber, sem perigo”[6].

Este despreparo também leva a defender que a epidemia é um problema de Saúde Pública que justifica o uso do “fumacê”, mesmo com produtos químicos sabidamente tóxicos, como o Malathion, um verdadeiro contrassenso sanitário. Este produto é um agrotóxico organofosforado considerado pela Agência Internacional de Pesquisa em Câncer (IARC) como potencialmente cancerígeno para os seres humanos[7].

Assim, na tentativa de eliminar o mosquito estão sendo atingidos os humanos mediante efeitos agudos (de morbimortalidade) e de morte lenta, gradual, invisível e que é ocultada. Além das doenças agudas, as crônicas causadas por tais produtos aparecem a médio e longo prazos, a maioria delas chamadas “idiopáticas”, isto é, de causa indefinida ou desconhecida, que não são diagnosticadas ou se quer investigadas.

Ocorre que em pleno século XXI, no caso das doenças transmitidas pelo Aedes Aegypti, houve mais um complicador em termos de Saúde Pública, pois dois novos vírus entraram em nosso país, para cujas doenças – Chikungunya e Zika – não havia experiência no manejo clínico e nem epidemiológico.

A dengue e o sistema de vigilância epidemiológica

O sistema de vigilância epidemiológica da maioria dos serviços de saúde não investigou adequadamente esta nova realidade. Agora, com a tragédia do surgimento dos casos de microcefalia, revela-se este despreparo técnico-gerencial. Historicamente essas questões de Saúde Pública estão imersas em “razões de Estado”, desconhecidas pela maioria da sociedade. Devemos perguntar: que razões são essas? Para tal basta examinar os documentos oficiais do MS sobre controle vetorial.

Neste sentido, é pedagógico examinarmos os documentos orientadores emanados do MS. É o caso, por exemplo, da NOTA TÉCNICA N.º 109/2010 CGPNCD/DEVEP/SVS/MS[8] de COMBATE à DENGUE, na qual estão bem ilustrados os equívocos que aqui sinalizamos, ou seja, a intensificação do uso da UBV motorizada e costal nos domicílios e nas vias públicas. Nela se reitera os vários absurdos cometidos no controle vetorial do Aedes aegypti e que o MS insiste em manter e ampliar.

O envenenamento da população pobre

No Brasil, a Dengue tornou-se uma doença endêmica com surtos epidêmicos e isto precisa ser assumido de uma vez por todas. Quais são as áreas específicas de maior circulação viral? Justamente aquelas onde habitam as populações mais pobres, que tem piores condições imunológicas e sem saneamento adequado, o que vai se agravar conforme noticias do jornal FOLHA de SÃO PAULO, edição de 11-01-2016. E por que não se divulgam essas vulnerabilidades para a própria população? Acima referida Nota Técnica faz menção à outra, de nº 118/2010, que formula um parâmetro composto, com o que se busca introduzir  indicadores ambientais[9].

Ocorre que o faz apenas para a “delimitação das áreas que necessitam de maior intensificação das ações do combate ao vetor”. Ou seja, a aplicação de veneno (inseticidas e larvicidas) acaba aumentando a nocividade sobre o sistema imune.

A NT 109/2010 informa ainda, que “as ações de controle larvário a serem implementadas estão voltadas, principalmente, para as atividades de redução de fontes criadoras do mosquito (caixas d’água, depósitos diversos, pneus, entre outros)”. Ao assim proceder, admite-se que caixa d´água seja criadouro de mosquito e, portanto, deve ser “tratada” com veneno. Ocorre que a água de beber deve ter sua potabilidade garantida. Por que as ações não incidem na limpeza e na proteção dos reservatórios destinados a armazenar o líquido mais precioso para a vida? Como é possível aceitar a perda da potabilidade da água destinada aos mais pobres? Sim aos mais pobres, justamente aqueles que têm a maior vulnerabilidade. Que equidade é essa na qual aqueles que deveriam ser os mais protegidos e são, paradoxalmente, os mais expostos às situações de nocividade química por quem deveria protegê-los? A alegação de que a população é passiva também decorre desse modelo vertical e autoritário. Prioriza-se a potência do veneno contra os insetos desconsiderando o perigo aos seres humanos e, assim, nada mais precisa ser feito.

Ainda na NT 109/2010 o MS advoga que o sucesso do controle de doenças transmitidas por vetores possa ser atribuído aos agrotóxicos, quando cita como referência para sua justificativa nesse documento a “National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. National Academy Press, Washington”.  Ressaltamos que o MS é a autoridade máxima em saúde e deveria se pautar pelo princípio da precaução quando se coloca o tema relacionado às exposições humanas a produtos químicos perigosos.

Também nela se lê que em razão do crescente agravamento do processo de resistência de mosquitos aos inseticidas, uma das principais missões do Comitê de Especialistas em Praguicidas da OMS (WHOPES) é encontrar novos biocidas para os quais não haja insetos resistentes, não havendo qualquer abertura para outros métodos, não perigosos, de controle. É fato bem demonstrado que a resistência adquirida pelo mosquito está a demonstrar a insustentabilidade do modelo químico-dependente de controle vetorial, pois já é sabido há muitos anos que os venenos desenvolvem e/ou aumentam a frequência de insetos portadores de mecanismos de resistência aos inseticidas e larvicidas, como vem ocorrendo com o Aedes aegypti.

Ademais a NT 109/2010 admite que “todos os inseticidas que se utilizam em saúde pública – por razões de mercado – são produtos originalmente desenvolvidos para a agricultura, não havendo nenhum que tenha sido desenvolvido exclusivamente para uso em saúde”. E cita como parâmetro de sustentação do sucesso da medida, as pesquisas realizadas em Cingapura para avaliar possível impacto da utilização das diversas medidas utilizadas no enfrentamento de uma epidemia de dengue naquele país. Por que não analisar nossas próprias experiências, afinal temos um tempo de controle vetorial de mais de 40 anos. Será que não são edificantes?

Mais venenos, mais resistência, mais venenos

É utilizado o exemplo do inseticida organofosforado Temephós (conhecido comercialmente como ABATE®), a 1%, introduzido no Brasil em 1968, como larvicida em água potável especialmente no Norte e Nordeste brasileiro, cujos impactos na saúde das populações não foram estudados. Sabemos que apesar da constatação da resistência do mosquito o MS continuou a utilizá-lo até o esgotamento de seu estoque, a despeito de ter sido demonstrado a resistência nos insetos alvo e a farta informação toxicológica dos potenciais riscos para a saúde humana.

A continuidade da adição de outros larvicidas substitutos na água de beber das pessoas se dá até hoje sem qualquer preocupação sobre sua concentração final, pois por orientação das normas do MS é indicada a diluição dos larvicidas apenas considerando o volume físico do recipiente e não pela  quantidade interna de água no recipiente. Em 1998, um alerta formal sobre este erro de diluição foi feito por químicos, médicos e engenheiros sanitaristas reconhecidos, mas nada mudou! Teimosamente, até hoje os documentos oficiais do MS recomendam a adição do larvicida nas caixas d’água considerando apenas o volume físico e não a quantidade de água que de fato existe em seu interior.

Um fato agravante é que em Pernambuco e outras regiões do Nordeste há racionamento frequente de água. Diante disso, cabe indagar: há quanto tempo o povo dessas regiões bebe água envenenada? De forma não cuidadosa e com falta de precaução, a introdução dos larvicidas classificados como reguladores de crescimento de insetos (IGR) dá-se mediante Notas Técnicas ainda mais abusivas no que se refere a “despotabilização” da água de beber.

Entendemos que aqui está a chave mestra para discutir porque o MS admite e defende esse modelo. Por trás disso estão a OMS e OPAS com o peso institucional de seus comitês de “pesticidas” que não dialogam com os comitês: ambiental, de saneamento e de promoção da saúde. Naqueles comitês internacionais, os que fazem a prescrição do uso e a regulação da compra dos insumos de controle vetorial para o mundo são imperiais. São tais organismos que convencem e dão o aval aos processos licitatórios dos governos nacionais.

Os larvicidas reguladores de crescimento como o Diflubenzuron e Novaluron, introduzidos no lugar do Temephós, mostram-se problemáticos. Em Recife, foi realizado estudo de efeito sobre a saúde dos trabalhadores que os aplicam constatou-se a ocorrência de metahemoglobinemia; também se sabe que seus metabólitos têm diversos efeitos tóxicos, e que não são considerados. Tais resultados foram amplamente divulgados no II Seminário da Rede Dengue da Fiocruz em novembro de 2010, na cidade do Rio de Janeiro; no Primeiro Simpósio de Saúde e Ambiente em 2010, realizado na cidade de Belém e no 10º. Congresso Brasileiro de Saúde Coletiva em 2012, na cidade de Porto Alegre.

Com sua política centralizadora, os setores do MS responsáveis pelo controle vetorial contraindicam que os municípios adotem outros meios independentes do uso químico. Mesmo diante da constatação da ineficácia do modelo utilizado. Os municípios gastam inutilmente seus parcos recursos em produtos químicos perigosos e fazem os trabalhadores da saúde atuarem apenas nesse ponto, expondo-os ainda aos venenos.

Insistindo nessa estratégia, houve, em 2014, a introdução do larvicida Pyriproxyfen, e mesmo sabendo-se de sua toxicidade como teratogênico e de desregulação endócrina para o mosquito, foi considerado de baixa toxicidade. E, mais uma vez, o MS recomenda o seu uso em água potável, para ser adicionado nos reservatórios e caixas de água, independentemente da quantidade de água no seu interior, tornando a concentração mais elevada quando em situações de racionamento de água[10][11].

Diante de produtos que têm efeito teratogênico em artrópodes, o que pelas normatizações para registro de agrotóxicos seria vedado seu uso na agricultura, por razões de segurança alimentar, perguntamos como aceitar o uso em água potável destinado ao consumo humano? O que dizer desse uso em um contexto epidêmico de má formação fetal? No estado de Emergência em Saúde Pública de Importância Nacional, recentemente decretado pelo MS, conforme noticia a grande mídia, está sendo preconizado o uso de larvicida diretamente nos carros-pipas que distribuem água nas regiões do Agreste e Sertão do Nordeste. Alertamos que esta é a mais recente medida sanitária absurda e imprudente imposta pelos gestores do modelo químico de controle vetorial.

Embora a NT 109/2010 reconheça que “A inserção de ações intersetoriais, tais como o abastecimento regular de água e coleta de resíduos sólidos, constitui-se em uma atividade fundamental para impactar na redução da densidade do vetor Aedes aegypti”, pouco se propõe nesse sentido. Insistimos na pergunta: por que é mantido o controle vetorial centrado em um programa que há mais de 40 anos vem mostrando ineficácia e ineficiência para fazê-lo? Impõe-se, pois, uma estratégia centrada na identificação e eliminação dos criadouros e no Saneamento Ambiental. O que de fato está sendo feito para o abastecimento regular de água nas periferias das cidades? Como as pessoas podem proteger as águas reservadas para consumo? Por que apesar de muitas cidades terem coleta de lixo regular ainda se observa uma quantidade enorme de resíduos sólidos diariamente dispostos no ambiente? O que está sendo feito para cuidar desta questão? E a drenagem urbana de águas pluviais? E o esgotamento sanitário?

Merece ainda destaque a NT 109/2010, quando afirma que “o maior problema reside nos “adulticidas espacial e residual”, lamentando que os venenos disponíveis estejam restritos apenas aos “grupos dos organofosforados e piretróides. Nos organofosforados a oferta restringe-se ao Malathion (espacial) e o Fenitrothion (residual)”. Esclarecemos que a menção ao termo “espacial” se refere a uso em nebulizadores (Ultra Baixo Volume – UBV, conhecido como “fumacê”, ou por equipamento costal). Dos venenos acima referidos, sabe-se, como já dito, que o Malathion é um potente cancerígeno para animais e, recentemente, foi reconhecido como potencialmente cancerígeno para humanos pela IARC da OMS[12]. Vale o destaque, de que diversos produtos utilizados no controle vetorial do Aedes aegypti como o  Fenitrothion, Malathion e Temephós vem sendo estudados desde 1998, no Departamento de Química Fundamental da UFPE e mostram ter efeitos potencialmente carcinogênicos para humanos. As recomendações pelo MS do uso de Malathion encontram-se no documento Recomendações sobre o uso de Malathion Emulsão Aquosa-EA 44% para o controle de Aedes aegypti em aplicações espaciais a Ultra Baixo Volume UBV, de 2014[13]. Com a adoção dessas nebulizações o envenenamento é potencialmente, ainda mais amplo e perigoso.

Sem trocadilhos, chega-se assim, ao fundo do poço, em termos de falta de compreensão dos processos de determinação socioambiental e de cuidados na prevenção das doenças relacionadas aos vetores, aos quais se somam os interesses nacionais e internacionais estranhos às questões de saúde públicas e relacionadas às agendas de consumo dos agrotóxicos.

Onde fica o saneamento ambiental?

Uma pergunta que não quer calar precisa ser aqui posta com total indignação: por que não foram priorizadas até agora as ações de saneamento ambiental, estratégia que parece ficar ainda mais distante?

A propósito, se visitarmos as periferias das grandes cidades e as chamadas zonas especiais socialmente vulneráveis, onde as carências são de toda ordem, ver-se-á um quadro sanitário tão grave que nenhuma quantidade de veneno poderá resolver o controle vetorial, ao que acresce o fato de que as pessoas terão sua saúde gravemente comprometida.

As políticas urbanas e de saneamento são, em geral, desarticuladas. As precárias condições de moradia, de urbanização e de saneamento ambiental, contexto característico da grande maioria dos casos de microcefalia, refletem um modelo de desenvolvimento e de políticas urbanas que atinge aos pobres, já vulnerabilizados historicamente pela abissal desigualdade social brasileira. Habitações sem condições para adequado armazenamento de água domiciliar, localizadas em áreas íngremes ou alagadas, com precária infraestrutura e urbanização e com serviços de saneamento precários. Um contexto que reflete a mazela social que destina melhor infraestrutura e melhores serviços para as classes média e alta. O exemplo da desigualdade no acesso à água potável no Brasil é emblemático dessa assimetria de acesso. O consumo per capita pode variar em uma cidade de 30 a 500 litros/hab/dia. Uma das expressões dessa desigualdade é no rodízio semanal do acesso ou na intermitência do abastecimento de água. A grande maioria de casos de microcefalia ocorreu em cidades com problemas sérios de rodízios ou intermitência, onde os mais pobres ficam mais dias sem água por semana e os mais ricos ou não tem rodízio ou intermitência ou os tem por poucos dias. A crise hídrica e a má gestão dos serviços de saneamento também tem imposto o rodízio ou intermitência a cidades inteiras, e mesmo o colapso no abastecimento, cenário de muitos casos de microcefalia no Nordeste.

Diante da inoperância dos métodos de controle do Aedes aegypti, a gravidade da situação se aprofunda. Em Pernambuco a Secretaria de Estado da Saúde (SES) notificou ao MS, em 28 de outubro de 2015, a existência de 29 casos de microcefalia naquele ano, até então mais do que o dobro do que vinha ocorrendo nos anos anteriores. Destaca-se que apenas 07 estados tinham a prática de notificação obrigatória de má-formação congênita. Em dezembro de 2015 constatava-se que 14 estados estavam com prevalência de microcefalia elevada. A proporção de novos casos em Pernambuco tornou-se assustadora. No dia 18 de novembro de 2015, o MS decreta o estado de Emergência em Saúde Pública de Importância Nacional, situação que apenas fora adotada em 1917, com a ocorrência de Gripe Espanhola. Conforme noticiado pelo Diário de Pernambuco, em 20/01/2016, o número de casos suspeitos de microcefalia subiu para 3.893. Os registros foram feitos em 764 municípios, distribuídos em 21 unidades da federação. Até essa data, foram notificadas 49 mortes provocadas por essa má-formação. Do total desses óbitos, 05 tiveram confirmadas a presença do vírus Zika. Embora sabemos que, em uma situação de exposição materna ao vírus, e este ultrapassando a barreira placentária, é esperado que o feto também se exponha. Neste campo ainda há muitas questões em processo de pesquisa. Segundo informações do MS, Pernambuco continua a ser o Estado com o maior número de casos suspeitos (1.306), o que representa 33% do total registrado em todo o país[14].

Deve-se alertar e assinalar que a entrada no Brasil do vírus Zika não foi acompanhada de um conhecimento da sua dispersão pela vigilância epidemiológica e entomológica. Uma série de medidas, todas centradas na prática do uso de venenos foi intensificada, a partir da aceitação de relação direta entre microcefalia e Zika vírus. Como aditivo temos a recomendação para gestantes de uso de repelente[15]. Com isso o DEET (N,N-dimetil-meta-toluamida) vem sendo comercializado sem restrição para mulheres grávidas, outra banalização de exposição química[16].

O quadro de crise epidemiológica das doenças transmitidas pelo Aedes aegypti é ainda mais grave e aqui é importante dizer que no Brasil, entre 2014 e 2015, ocorreram cerca de 1,5 milhão de casos, a metade no estado de São Paulo. Porque nesse estado, onde ocorrem periodicamente epidemias de Dengue, que anteriormente registrava pouquíssimos óbitos, e que, nesse período, houve inusitadamente mais de 400 mortes associadas a complicações de Dengue? Será que tal fato tem relação com a informação de que, em São Paulo, vem se intensificando o controle vetorial com uso de Malathion em nebulização química? Esse veneno é utilizado desde 2001, a 30% na formulação final, em processo de nebulização, pela Superintendência de Controle de Endemias (SUCEN), sendo que no segundo semestre de 2014, foi introduzida  pelo MS uma nova formulação de Malathion diluído em água[17], contendo emulsificantes e estabilizantes não declarados. A justificativa dessa substituição foi o seu menor custo. Será que pode haver alguma associação entre a exposição ao Malathion e essa mortalidade considerada tão aumentada por complicações da Dengue? Quem são esses que morreram? São idosos, portadores de doenças crônicas, crianças? É preciso saber mais. A população exposta ao Malathion foi investigada? A possibilidade de essas mortes estarem associadas à exposição ao Malathion foi aventada e pesquisada? Salientamos que devido ao uso massivo e contínuo de substância tão tóxica essa investigação precisa ser realizada.

Finalizando, reivindicamos das autoridades competentes a adoção das medidas a seguir:

1) Imediata revisão do modelo de controle vetorial. O foco deve ser a ELIMINAÇÃO DO CRIADOURO e não o mosquito como centro da ação; com a suspensão do uso de produtos químicos e adoção de métodos mecânicos de limpeza e de saneamento ambiental. Nos reservatórios de água de beber utilizar medidas de limpeza e proteção da qualidade da água e garantia de sua potabilidade;

2) Nas campanhas de Saúde Pública para controle de Aedes aegyptiimediata suspensão do uso de Malathion ou qualquer outro organofosforado, carbamato, piretróide ou organopersistente, seja em nebulização aérea ou em cortinados tratados com veneno (mosquiteiros impregnados). Substituir o uso desses produtos por barreiras mecânicas, limpeza, aspiração, telagem de janelas, portas entre outras medidas;

3) Nas medidas adotadas pelo MS para controle de Aedes aegypti em suas formas larva e adulto, imediata suspensão do  Pyriproxyfen (0,5 G) e de todos os inibidores de crescimento como o Diflubenzuron e o Novaluron, ou qualquer outro produto químico ou biológico em água potável. O conceito de potabilidade da água não pode ser perdido, ele é a chave para as medidas participativas de eliminação de vetores.

4) Que sejam realizados esforços intersetoriais para a acabar com a intermitência do abastecimento de água nas áreas de urbanização precária. Água é um direito humano. As populações mais vulneráveis devem, por equidade, serem as mais protegidas;

5) Que as ações de controle vetorial no ambiente seja uma atribuição dos órgãos de saneamento e de controle ambiental municipais, estaduais e nacional e não só do SUS, que deve atuar na vigilância entomológica, sanitária, ambiental, epidemiológica, virológica e da saúde do trabalhador, aferindo se as medidas de saneamento ambiental estão resultando em melhoria das condições de saúde;

6) Que as políticas urbanas e de saneamento ambiental promovam programas integrados para a resolução dos problemas de moradia, saneamento e urbanização;

7) Que a vigilância epidemiológica seja realizada por profissionais experientes em clínica, fisiopatologia e epidemiologia, em diversos níveis do SUS. Esta proposição se dá no fortalecimento da integração e atuação articuladas das áreas de vigilância da saúde com as áreas de produção de conhecimentos.

8) Que sejam realizadas pesquisas clínicas e informadas outras disfunções ou malformações relativas as viroses da Dengue, da Zika e da Chincungunya e que sejam estudados os efeitos da exposição a produtos químicos utilizados no controle vetorial do Aedes aegypti;

9) Que o amparo às famílias acometidas pelo surto de microcefalia se dê mediante uma política pública perene e não transitória. Que esse apoio seja integral, incluindo neste atenção a família pelo trauma psíquico decorrente desse desfecho gestacional.

10) Que seja realizada uma auditoria nos modelos de controle vetorial por uma comissão multidisciplinar de especialistas  independentes, incluindo avaliação do modos operados do Fundo Rotatório da OPAS/OMS a ser solicitado pelo governo brasileiro, quiçá em conjunto com outros países latino-americanos que sofrem as mesmas imposições,  à Organização da Nações Unidas;

12) Que seja ratificada a imediata elaboração pelo Ministério da Saúde de orientações técnicas para a Atenção à Saúde dos Trabalhadores da Saúde que NO PASSADO se expuseram aos agrotóxicos utilizados no controle do Aedes aegypti, a serem adotadas pelas Secretarias Estaduais e Municipais de Saúde, em acordo com a Política Nacional de Saúde do Trabalhador e com experiência exitosas;

13) Que seja criado, pelo MS, um Portal para acesso amplo da população a todos processos e fatos associados ao controle vetorial, às epidemias relacionadas à ação do Aedes aegypti e a epidemia de microcefalia. Nele deve também ser informado quando utilizados, o volume, os tipos de produtos químicos, o número de domicílios e imóveis nebulizados, por Unidade da Federação e por município, pois são do maior interesse dos profissionais de saúde e da sociedade.

 

Por fim, chamamos atenção da sociedade civil, diante da atual declaração de Estado de Emergência em Saúde Pública de Importância Nacional para epidemia de microcefalia e arboviroses, que: a) todas as medidas de controle vetorial sejam realizadas com mobilização social no sentido da proteção e respeito da cidadania pela Saúde Pública, priorizando-se as medidas de saneamento ambiental, com garantia da potabilidade da água de beber, como parte do respeito aos Direitos Humanos e orientados pelos princípios da Política Nacional de Educação Popular em Saúdeb) que o SUS deve rever as estratégias e conteúdos da comunicação social à população, tirando o foco na responsabilidade individual e das famílias, explicitando as responsabilidades dos diversos setores estatais, com ênfase na importância das medidas de saneamento, coleta de resíduos, cumprimentos das políticas de resíduos sólidos, garantia de abastecimento de água; e c) melhoria da qualidade da assistência às famílias e às crianças acometidas e da atenção pré-natal, pois se agrava a fragilidade observada que já era conhecida – a exemplo dos casos de sífilis congênita – e que se comprova com a ocorrência de casos de microcefalia identificados após o parto.

 

Grupos Temáticos da Abrasco: 

GT Saúde e Ambiente

GT Saúde do Trabalhador

GT Vigilância Sanitária

GT Promoção da Saúde e Desenvolvimento Sustentável

GT Educação Popular e Saúde

GT Alimentação e Nutrição em Saúde Coletiva

 

[1] Livro editado pela CNBB no final de 2015.

[2] Disponível em http://u.saude.gov.br/images/pdf/2014/julho/15/Instrucoes-para-uso-de-pyriproxifennmaio-2014.pdf)

[3] UBV é uma técnica que utiliza equipamentos motorizados ou costal de alta pressão fazendo com que as partículas sejam menores, aumentando sua dispersão no ambiente e a penetração nos pulmões pela inalação das pessoas expostas.

[4] Armed Forces Pest Management Board, por meio do Memorando nº 13 – TECHNICAL INFORMATION MEMORANDUM NO. 13, do Centro Médico do Instituto Walter Reed). Disponível em: http://www.afpmb.org/pubs/tims/tim13.htm#Equipment

[5] Ver NT da Abrasco de 2014 https://goo.gl/GbAXx7

[6] Disponível em: http://u.saude.gov.br/images/pdf/2014/maio/30/Instrucoes-para-uso-de-pyriproxifen-maio-2014.pdf

[7] Disponível em: https://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/MonographVolume112.pdf

[8] Coordenação Geral do Programa Nacional de Controle da Dengue / Departamento de Vigilância em Saúde / Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde

[9] Disponível em: http://www.saude.mppr.mp.br/arquivos/File/dengue/nt_aval_vul_epid_dengue_verao_10_11.pdf

[10] Disponível em: http://u.saude.gov.br/images/pdf/2014/maio/30/Instrucoes-para-uso-de-pyriproxifen-maio-2014.pdf

[12] Disponível em: https://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/MonographVolume112.pdf

[13] Disponível em: http://u.saude.gov.br/images/pdf/2014/setembro/02/Recomenda—-es-para-o-uso-de-malathion-EW.pdf

[14] Disponível em: http://www.diariodepernambuco.com.br/app/noticia/brasil/2016/01/20/interna_brasil,622575/sobe-para-3-893-o-numero-de-casos-de-microcefalia-no-pais.shtml

[15] Disponível em: http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/zika-microcephaly-Brazil-rapid-risk-assessment-Nov-2015.pdf

[16] Ver aspectos toxicológicos do DEET em: http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/risk/guidance/gw/deet.pdf

[17] Fabricado pela Bayer.

Study suggests different written languages are equally efficient at conveying meaning (Eureka/University of Southampton)

PUBLIC RELEASE: 1-FEB-2016

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON

IMAGE

IMAGE: A STUDY LED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON HAS FOUND THERE IS NO DIFFERENCE IN THE TIME IT TAKES PEOPLE FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES TO READ AND PROCESS DIFFERENT LANGUAGES. view more  CREDIT: UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON

A study led by the University of Southampton has found there is no difference in the time it takes people from different countries to read and process different languages.

The research, published in the journal Cognition, finds the same amount of time is needed for a person, from for example China, to read and understand a text in Mandarin, as it takes a person from Britain to read and understand a text in English – assuming both are reading their native language.

Professor of Experimental Psychology at Southampton, Simon Liversedge, says: “It has long been argued by some linguists that all languages have common or universal underlying principles, but it has been hard to find robust experimental evidence to support this claim. Our study goes at least part way to addressing this – by showing there is universality in the way we process language during the act of reading. It suggests no one form of written language is more efficient in conveying meaning than another.”

The study, carried out by the University of Southampton (UK), Tianjin Normal University (China) and the University of Turku (Finland), compared the way three groups of people in the UK, China and Finland read their own languages.

The 25 participants in each group – one group for each country – were given eight short texts to read which had been carefully translated into the three different languages. A rigorous translation process was used to make the texts as closely comparable across languages as possible. English, Finnish and Mandarin were chosen because of the stark differences they display in their written form – with great variation in visual presentation of words, for example alphabetic vs. logographic(1), spaced vs. unspaced, agglutinative(2) vs. non-agglutinative.

The researchers used sophisticated eye-tracking equipment to assess the cognitive processes of the participants in each group as they read. The equipment was set up identically in each country to measure eye movement patterns of the individual readers – recording how long they spent looking at each word, sentence or paragraph.

The results of the study showed significant and substantial differences between the three language groups in relation to the nature of eye movements of the readers and how long participants spent reading each individual word or phrase. For example, the Finnish participants spent longer concentrating on some words compared to the English readers. However, most importantly and despite these differences, the time it took for the readers of each language to read each complete sentence or paragraph was the same.

Professor Liversedge says: “This finding suggests that despite very substantial differences in the written form of different languages, at a basic propositional level, it takes humans the same amount of time to process the same information regardless of the language it is written in.

“We have shown it doesn’t matter whether a native Chinese reader is processing Chinese, or a Finnish native reader is reading Finnish, or an English native reader is processing English, in terms of comprehending the basic propositional content of the language, one language is as good as another.”

The study authors believe more research would be needed to fully understand if true universality of language exists, but that their study represents a good first step towards demonstrating that there is universality in the process of reading.

###

Notes for editors:

1) Logographic language systems use signs or characters to represent words or phrases.

2) Agglutinative language tends to express concepts in complex words consisting of many sub-units that are strung together.

3) The paper Universality in eye movements and reading: A trilingual investigation, (Simon P. Liversedge, Denis Drieghe, Xin Li, Guoli Yan, Xuejun Bai, Jukka Hyönä) is published in the journal Cognition and can also be found at: http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/382899/1/Liversedge,%20Drieghe,%20Li,%20Yan,%20Bai,%20%26%20Hyona%20(in%20press)%20copy.pdf

 

Semantically speaking: Does meaning structure unite languages? (Eureka/Santa Fe Institute)

1-FEB-2016

Humans’ common cognitive abilities and language dependance may provide an underlying semantic order to the world’s languages

SANTA FE INSTITUTE

We create words to label people, places, actions, thoughts, and more so we can express ourselves meaningfully to others. Do humans’ shared cognitive abilities and dependence on languages naturally provide a universal means of organizing certain concepts? Or do environment and culture influence each language uniquely?

Using a new methodology that measures how closely words’ meanings are related within and between languages, an international team of researchers has revealed that for many universal concepts, the world’s languages feature a common structure of semantic relatedness.

“Before this work, little was known about how to measure [a culture’s sense of] the semantic nearness between concepts,” says co-author and Santa Fe Institute Professor Tanmoy Bhattacharya. “For example, are the concepts of sun and moon close to each other, as they are both bright blobs in the sky? How about sand and sea, as they occur close by? Which of these pairs is the closer? How do we know?”

Translation, the mapping of relative word meanings across languages, would provide clues. But examining the problem with scientific rigor called for an empirical means to denote the degree of semantic relatedness between concepts.

To get reliable answers, Bhattacharya needed to fully quantify a comparative method that is commonly used to infer linguistic history qualitatively. (He and collaborators had previously developed this quantitative method to study changes in sounds of words as languages evolve.)

“Translation uncovers a disagreement between two languages on how concepts are grouped under a single word,” says co-author and Santa Fe Institute and Oxford researcher Hyejin Youn. “Spanish, for example, groups ‘fire’ and ‘passion’ under ‘incendio,’ whereas Swahili groups ‘fire’ with ‘anger’ (but not ‘passion’).”

To quantify the problem, the researchers chose a few basic concepts that we see in nature (sun, moon, mountain, fire, and so on). Each concept was translated from English into 81 diverse languages, then back into English. Based on these translations, a weighted network was created. The structure of the network was used to compare languages’ ways of partitioning concepts.

The team found that the translated concepts consistently formed three theme clusters in a network, densely connected within themselves and weakly to one another: water, solid natural materials, and earth and sky.

“For the first time, we now have a method to quantify how universal these relations are,” says Bhattacharya. “What is universal – and what is not – about how we group clusters of meanings teaches us a lot about psycholinguistics, the conceptual structures that underlie language use.”

The researchers hope to expand this study’s domain, adding more concepts, then investigating how the universal structure they reveal underlies meaning shift.

Their research was published today in PNAS.

Feyerabend and the harmfulness of the ontological turn (Agent Swarm)

Posted on 

by Terence Blake

Feyerabend stands in opposition to the demand for a new construction that some thinkers have made after the supposed failure or historical obsolescence of deconstruction and of post-structuralism in general. On the contrary, he wholeheartedly endorses the continued necessity of deconstruction. Feyerabend also rejects the idea that we need an overarching system or a unified theoretical framework, arguing that in many cases a system or theoretical framework is just not necessary or even useful:

a theoretical framework may not be needed (do I need a theoretical framework to get along with my neighbor?) . Even a domain that uses theories may not need a theoretical framework (in periods of revolution theories are not used as frameworks but are broken into pieces which are then arranged this way and that way until something interesting seems to arise) (Philosophy and Methodology of Military Intelligence, 13).

Further, not only is a unified framework often unnecessary, it is undesirable, as it can be a hindrance to our research and to the conduct of our lives:

“frameworks always put undue constraints on any interesting activity” (ibid, 13).

Feyerabend emphasises that our ideas must be sufficiently complex to fit in and to cope with the complexity of our practices (11). More important than a new theoretical construction which only serves “to confuse people instead of helping them” we need ideas that have the complexity and the fluidity that come from close connection with concrete practice and with its “fruitful imprecision” (11).

Lacking this connection, we get only school philosophies that “deceive people but do not help them”. They deceive people by replacing the concrete world with their own abstract construction

that gives some general and very mislead[ing] outlines but never descends to details.

The result is a simplistic set of slogans and stereotypes that

“is taken seriously only by people who have no original ideas and think that [such a school philosophy] might help them getting ideas”.

Applied to the the ontological turn, this means that an ontological system is useless, a hindrance to thought and action, whereas an ontology which is not crystallised into a unified system and a closed set of fixed principles, but which limits itself to proposing an open set of rules of thumb and of free study of concrete cases is both acceptable and desirable. The detour through ontology is both useless and harmful, according to Feyerabend, because a freer, more open, and less technical approach is possible.

OMS declara vírus zica e microcefalia ‘emergência pública internacional’ (JC)

Comitê de Emergência se reuniu pela primeira vez nesta segunda-feira (1) para reagir ao aumento do número de casos de desordens neurológicas e malformações congênitas, sobretudo nas Américas. País mais atingido é o Brasil

A Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) realizou nesta segunda-feira (1) a primeira reunião do Comité de Emergência que trata dos recentes casos de microcefalia e outros distúrbios neurológicos em áreas afetadas pelo vírus zika, sobretudo nas Américas. O país mais atingido é o Brasil.

O Secretariado da OMS informou ao Comitê sobre a situação dos casos de microcefalia e Síndrome de Guillain-Barré, circunstancialmente associados à transmissão do vírus zika. O Comitê foi recebeu informações sobre a história do vírus zika, sua extensão, apresentação clínica e epidemiologia.

As representações do Brasil, França, Estados Unidos e El Salvador apresentaram as primeiras informações sobre uma potencial associação entre a microcefalia – bem como outros distúrbios neurológicos – e a doença provocada pelo vírus zika.

Segundo o comunicado da OMS, os especialistas reunidos em Genebra concordam que uma relação causal entre a infecção do zika durante a gravidez e microcefalia é “fortemente suspeita”, embora ainda não comprovada cientificamente.

A falta de vacinas e testes de um diagnóstico rápido e confiável, bem como a ausência de imunidade da população em países recém-afetados, foram citadas como novos motivos de preocupação.

Para a Comissão da OMS, o recente conjunto de casos microcefalia e outros distúrbios neurológicos relatados no Brasil, logo após ocorrências semelhantes na Polinésia Francesa, em 2014, constituem uma “emergência de saúde pública de importância internacional”, condição conhecida também pela sua sigla em inglês (PHEIC).

Em uma decisão aceita pela diretora-geral da OMS, Margaret Chan, o Comitê da agência da ONU busca assim coordenar uma resposta global de modo a minimizar a ameaça nos países afetados e reduzir o risco de propagação internacional.

Recomendações à diretora-geral da OMS

O Comitê, em resposta às informações fornecidas, fez recomendações à OMS sobre medidas a serem tomadas.

Em relação aos distúrbios neurológicos e microcefalia, o Comitê sugere que a vigilância de microcefalia e da Síndrome de Guillain-Barré deve ser padronizada e melhorada, particularmente em áreas conhecidas de transmissão do vírus zika, bem como em áreas de risco de transmissão.

O Comitê também recomendou que seja intensificada a investigação acerca da etiologia – a causa das doenças – nos novos focos onde ocorrem os casos de distúrbios neurológicos e de microcefalia, para determinar se existe uma relação causal entre o vírus zika e outros fatores desconhecidos.

Como estes grupos se situam em áreas recém-infectadas com o vírus zika, de acordo com as boas práticas de saúde pública e na ausência de outra explicação para esses agrupamentos, o Comitê destaca a importância de “medidas agressivas” para reduzir a infecção com o vírus zika, especialmente entre as mulheres grávidas e mulheres em idade fértil.

Como medida de precaução, o Comitê fez as seguintes recomendações adicionais:

Transmissão do vírus zika

A vigilância para infecção pelo vírus zika deve ser reforçada, com a divulgação de definições de casos padrão e diagnósticos para áreas de risco.

O desenvolvimento de novos diagnósticos de infecção pelo vírus zika devem ser priorizados para facilitar as medidas de vigilância e de controle.

A comunicação de risco deve ser reforçada em países com transmissão do vírus zika para responder às preocupações da população, reforçar o envolvimento da comunidade, melhorar a comunicação e assegurar a aplicação de controle de vetores e medidas de proteção individual.

Medidas de controle de vetores e medidas de proteção individual adequada devem ser agressivamente promovidas e implementadas para reduzir o risco de exposição ao vírus zika.

Atenção deve ser dada para assegurar que as mulheres em idade fértil e mulheres grávidas em especial tenham as informações e materiais necessários para reduzir o risco de exposição.

As mulheres grávidas que tenham sido expostas ao vírus zika devem ser aconselhadas e acompanhadas por resultados do nascimento com base na melhor informação disponível e práticas e políticas nacionais.

Medidas de longo prazo

Esforços de pesquisa e desenvolvimento apropriados devem ser intensificados para vacinas, terapias e diagnósticos do vírus zika.

Em áreas conhecidas de transmissão do vírus zika, os serviços de saúde devem estar preparados para o aumento potencial de síndromes neurológicas e/ou malformações congênitas.

Medidas de viagem

Não deve haver restrições a viagens ou ao comércio com países, regiões e/ou territórios onde esteja ocorrendo a transmissão do vírus zika.

Viajantes para áreas com transmissão do vírus zika devem receber informações atualizadas sobre os potenciais riscos e medidas adequadas para reduzir a possibilidade de exposição a picadas do mosquito.

Recomendações da OMS sobre padrões em matéria de desinfestação de aeronaves e aeroportos devem ser implementadas.

Compartilhamento de dados

As autoridades nacionais devem garantir a comunicação e o compartilhamento ágeis e em tempo de informações relevantes de importância para a saúde pública, para esta Emergência.

Dados clínicos, virológicos e epidemiológicos, relacionados com o aumento das taxas de microcefalia e/ou Síndrome de Guillain-Barré, ou com a transmissão do vírus zika, devem ser rapidamente compartilhados com a OMS para facilitar a compreensão internacional destes eventos, para orientar o apoio internacional para os esforços de controle, priorizando a pesquisa e desenvolvimento de produtos.

Acompanhe:

http://who.int/emergencies/zika-virus

http://new.paho.org/bra

http://combateaedes.saude.gov.br

http://bit.ly/zikaoms

ONU

 

Leia também:

Agência Brasil – Notificação de casos de Zika passa a ser obrigatória no Brasil

The controversy about the relationship between GM mosquitoes and the Zika virus outbreak in Brazil

 

Pandora’s box: how GM mosquitos could have caused Brazil’s microcephaly disaster (The Ecologist)

Oliver Tickell

1st February 2016

Aedes Aegypti mosquito feeding on human blood. Photo: James Gathany via jentavery on Flickr (CC BY).

Aedes Aegypti mosquito feeding on human blood. This is the species that transmits Zika, and that was genetically engineered by Oxitec using the piggyBac transposon. Photo: James Gathany via jentavery on Flickr (CC BY).

In Brazil’s microcephaly epidemic, one vital question remains unanswered: how did the Zika virus suddenly learn how to disrupt the development of human embryos? The answer may lie in a sequence of ‘jumping DNA’ used to engineer the virus’s mosquito vector – and released into the wild four years ago in the precise area of Brazil where the microcephaly crisis is most acute.

These ‘promiscuous’ transposons have found special favour with genetic engineers, whose goal is to create ‘universal’ systems for transferring genes into any and every species on earth. Almost none of the geneticists has considered the hazards involved.

Since August 2015, a large number of babies in Northeast Brazil have been born with very small heads, a condition known as microcephaly, and with other serious malformations. 4,180 suspected cases have been reported.

Epidemiologists have found a convincing correlation between the incidence of the natal deformities and maternal infections with the Zika virus, first discovered in Uganda’s Zika Valley in 1947, which normally produces non-serious illness.

The correlation has been evidenced through the geographical distrubution of Zika infections and the wave of deformities. Zika virus has also been detected in the amniotic fluids and other tissues of the affected babies and their mothers.

This latter finding was recently reported by AS Oliveira Melo et al in a scientific paperpublished in the journal Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology, which noted evidence of intra-uterine infection. They also warn:

“As with other intrauterine infections, it is possible that the reported cases of microcephaly represent only the more severely affected children and that newborns with less severe disease, affecting not only the brain but also other organs, have not yet been diagnosed.”

The Brazilian Health Minister, Marcelo Castro, says he has “100% certainty” that there is a link between Zika and microcephaly. His view is supported by the medical community worldwide, including by the US Center for Disease Control.

Oliveira Melo et al draw attention to a mystery that lies at the heart of the affair: “It is difficult to explain why there have been no fetal cases of Zika virus infection reported until now but this may be due to the underreporting of cases, possible early acquisition of immunity in endemic areas or due to the rarity of the disease until now.

“As genomic changes in the virus have been reported, the possibility of a new, more virulent, strain needs to be considered. Until more cases are diagnosed and histopathological proof is obtained, the possibility of other etiologies cannot be ruled out.”

And this is the key question: how – if indeed Zika really is the problem, as appears likely – did this relatively innocuous virus acquire the ability to produce these terrible malformations in unborn human babies?

Oxitec’s GM mosquitoes

An excellent article by Claire Bernish published last week on AntiMedia draws attention to an interesting aspect of the matter which has escaped mainstream media attention: the correlation between the incidence of Zika and the area of release of genetically modified Aedes aegypti mosquitos engineered for male insterility (see maps, above right).

The purpose of the release was to see if it controlled population of the mosquitos, which are the vector of Dengue fever, a potentially lethal disease. The same species also transmits the Zika virus.

The releases took in 2011 and 2012 in the Itaberaba suburb of the city of Juazeiro, Bahia, Northeast Brazil, about 500 km west of ther coastal city of Recife. The experiment was written up in July 2015 in the journal PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases in a paper titled ‘Suppression of a Field Population of Aedes aegypti in Brazil by Sustained Release of Transgenic Male Mosquitoes’ by Danilo O. Carvalho et al.

An initial ‘rangefinder of 30,000 GM mosquitos per week took place between 19th May and 29th June 2011, followed by a much larger release of 540,000 per week in early 2012, ending on 11th February.

At the end of it the scientists claimed “effective control of a wild population of Ae. aegypti by sustained releases of OX513A male Ae. aegypti. We diminished Ae. aegypti population by 95% (95% CI: 92.2%-97.5%) based on adult trap data and 78% (95% CI: 70.5%-84.8%) based on ovitrap indices compared to the adjacent no-release control area.”

So what’s to worry about?

    The idea of the Oxitec mosquitoes is simple enough: the males produce non-viable offspring which all die. So the GM mosqitoes are ‘self-extinguishing’ and the altered genes cannot survive in the wild population. All very clever, and nothing to worry about!

    But in fact, it’s not so simple. In 2010 geneticist Ricarda Steinbrecher wrote to the biosafety regulator in Malaysia – also considering a release of the Oxitec mosquitoes – with a number of safety concerns, pointing out the 2007 finding by Phuc et al that 3-4% of the first generation mosquitos actually survive.

    The genetic engineerig method employed by Oxitec allows the popular antibiotic tetracycline to be used to repress the lethality during breeding. But as a side-effect, the lethality is also reduced by the presence of tetracycline in the environment; and as Bernish points out, Brazil is among the world’s biggest users of anti-microbials including tetracycline in its commercial farming sector:

    “As a study by the American Society of Agronomy, et. al., explained, ‘It is estimated that approximately 75% of antibiotics are not absorbed by animals and are excreted in waste.’ One of the antibiotics (or antimicrobials) specifically named in that report for its environmental persistence is tetracycline.

    In fact, as a confidential internal Oxitec document divulged in 2012, that survival rate could be as high as 15% – even with low levels of tetracycline present. ‘Even small amounts of tetracycline can repress’ the engineered lethality. Indeed, that 15% survival rate was described by Oxitec.”

    She then quotes the leaked Oxitec paper: “After a lot of testing and comparing experimental design, it was found that [researchers] had used a cat food to feed the [OX513A] larvae and this cat food contained chicken. It is known that tetracycline is routinely used to prevent infections in chickens, especially in the cheap, mass produced, chicken used for animal food. The chicken is heat-treated before being used, but this does not remove all the tetracycline. This meant that a small amount of tetracycline was being added from the food to the larvae and repressing the [designed] lethal system.”

    So in other words, there is every possibility for Oxitec’s modified genes to persist in wild populations of Aedes aegypti mosquitos, especially in the environmental presence of tetracycline which is widely present in sewage, septic tanks, contaminated water sources and farm runoff.

    ‘Promiscuous’ jumping genes

    On the face of it, there is no obvious way in which the spread of Oxitec’s GM mosquitos into the wild could have anything to do with Brazil’s wave of micrcophaly. Is there?

    Actually, yes. The problem may arise from the use of the ‘transposon’ (‘jumping’ sequence of DNA used in the genetic engineering process to introduce the new genes into the target organism). There are several such DNA sequences in use, and one of the most popular is known as known as piggyBac.

    As a 2001 review article by Dr Mae Wan Ho shows, piggyBac is notoriously active, inserting itself into genes way beyond its intended target: “These ‘promiscuous’ transposons have found special favour with genetic engineers, whose goal is to create ‘universal’ systems for transferring genes into any and every species on earth. Almost none of the geneticists has considered the hazards involved …

    “It would seem obvious that integrated transposon vectors may easily jump out again, to another site in the same genome, or to the genome of unrelated species. There are already signs of that in the transposon, piggyBac, used in the GM bollworms to be released by the USDA this summer.

    The piggyBac transposon was discovered in cell cultures of the moth Trichopulsia, the cabbage looper, where it caused high rates of mutations in the baculovirus infecting the cells by jumping into its genes … This transposon was later found to be active in a wide range of species, including the fruitfly Drosophila, the mosquito transmitting yellow fever, Aedes aegypti, the medfly, Ceratitis capitata, and the original host, the cabbage looper.

    “The piggyBac vector gave high frequencies of transpositions, 37 times higher than mariner and nearly four times higher than Hirmar.”

    In a later 2014 report Dr Mae Wan Ho returned to the theme with additional detail and fresh scientific evidence (please refer to her original article for references): “The piggyBac transposon was discovered in cell cultures of the moth Trichopulsia, the cabbage looper, where it caused high rates of mutations in the baculovirus infecting the cells by jumping into its genes …

    “There is also evidence that the disabled piggyBac vector carrying the transgene, even when stripped down to the bare minimum of the border repeats, was nevertheless able to replicate and spread, because the transposase enzyme enabling the piggyBac inserts to move can be provided by transposons present in all genomes.

    “The main reason initially for using transposons as vectors in insect control was precisely because they can spread the transgenes rapidly by ‘non-Mendelian’ means within a population, i.e., by replicating copies and jumping into genomes, thereby ‘driving’ the trait through the insect population. However, the scientists involved neglected the fact that the transposons could also jump into the genomes of the mammalian hosts including human beings …

    “In spite of instability and resulting genotoxicity, the piggyBac transposon has been used extensively also in human gene therapy. Several human cell lines have been transformed, even primary human T cells using piggyBac. These findings leave us little doubt that the transposon-borne transgenes in the transgenic mosquito can transfer horizontally to human cells. The piggyBac transposon was found to induce genome wide insertionmutations disrupting many gene functions.” 

    Has the GM nightmare finally come true?

    So down to the key question: was the Oxitec’s GM Aedes aegypti male-sterile mosquito released in Juazeiro engineered with the piggyBac transposon? Yes, it was. And that creates a highly significant possibility: that Oxitec’s release of its GM mosquitos led directly to the development of Brazil’s microcephaly epidemic through the following mechanism:

    1. Many of the millions of Oxitec GM mosquitos released in Juazeiro in 2011/2012 survive, assisted, but not dependent on, the presence of tetracycline in the environment.

    2. These mosquitos interbreed with with the wild population and their novel genes become widespread.

    3. The promiscuous piggyBac transposon now present in the local Aedes aegyptipopulation takes the opportunity to jump into the Zika virus, probably on numerous occasions.

    4. In the process certain mutated strains of Zika acquire a selective advantage, making them more virulent and giving them an enhanced ability to enter and disrupt human DNA.

    5. One way in which this manifests is by disrupting a key stage in the development of human embryos in the womb, causing microcephaly and the other reported deformations. Note that as Melo Oliveira et al warn, there are almost certainly other manifestations that have not yet been detected.

    6. It may be that the piggyBac transposon has itself entered the DNA of babies exposed in utero to the modified Zika virus. Indeed, this may form part of the mechanism by which embryonic development is disrupted.

    In the latter case, one implication is that the action of the gene could be blocked by giving pregnant women tetracycline in order to block its activity. The chances of success are probably low, but it has to be worth trying.

    No further releases of GM insects!

    While I am certainly not claiming that this is what actually took place, it is at least a credible hypothesis, and moreover a highly testable one. Nothing would be easier for genetic engineers than to test amniotic fluids, babies’ blood, wild Aedes mosquitos and the Zika virus itself for the presence of the piggyBac transposon, using well established and highly sensitive PCR (polymerase chain reaction) techniques.

    If this proves to be the case, those urging caution on the release of GMOs generally, and transgenic insects bearing promiscuous transposons in particular, will have been proved right on all counts.

    But most important, such experiments, and any deployment of similar GM insects, must be immediately halted until the possibilities outlined above can be safely ruled out. There are plans, for example, to release similarly modified Anopheles mosquitos as an anti-malarial measure.

    There are also calls for even more of the Oxitec Aedes aegypti mosquitos to be released in order to halt the transmission of the Zika virus. If that were to take place, it could give rise to numerous new mutations of the virus with the potential to cause even more damage to the human genome, that we can, at this stage, only guess at.

    Oliver Tickell edits The Ecologist.


     

    No, GM Mosquitoes Didn’t Start The Zika Outbreak (Discovery)

    By Christie Wilcox | January 31, 2016 9:56 pm

    ZIka_conspiracy_theory_cat

    A new ridiculous rumor is spreading around the internets. According to conspiracy theorists, the recent outbreak of Zika can be blamed on the British biotech company Oxitec, which some are saying even intentionally caused the disease as a form of ethnic cleansing or population control. The articles all cite a lone Redditor who proposed the connection on January 25th to the Conspiracy subreddit. “There are no biological free lunches,” says one commenter on the idea. “Releasing genetically altered species into the environment could have disastrous consequences” another added. “Maybe that’s what some entities want to happen…?”

    For some reason, it’s been one of those months where random nonsense suddenly hits mainstream. Here are the facts: there’s no evidence whatsoever to support this conspiracy theory, or any of the other bizarre, anti-science claims that have popped up in the past few weeks. So let’s stop all of this right here, right now: The Earth is round, not flat (and it’s definitely not hollow). Last year was the hottest year on record, and climate change is really happening (so please just stop, Mr. Cruz). And FFS, genetically modified mosquitoes didn’t start the Zika outbreak. 

    Background on Zika

    The Zika virus is a flavivirus closely related to notorious pathogens including dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile virus. The virus is transmitted by mosquitoes in the genus Aedes, especially A. aegypti, which is a known vector for many of Zika’s relatives. Symptoms of the infection appear three to twelve days post bite. Most people are asymptomatic, which means they show no signs of infection. The vast majority of those who do show signs of infection report fever, rash, joint pain, and conjunctivitis (red eyes), according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control. After a week or less, the symptoms tend to go away on their own. Serious complications have occurred, but they have been extremely rare.

    The Zika virus isn’t new. It was first isolated in 1947 from a Rhesus monkey in the Zika Forest in Uganda, hence the pathogen’s name. The first human cases were confirmed in Uganda and Tanzania in 1952, and by 1968, the virus had spread to Nigeria. But since then, the virus has found its way out of Africa. The first major outbreak occurred on the island of Yap in Micronesia for 13 weeks 2007, during which 185 Zika cases were suspected (49 of those were confirmed, with another 59 considered probable). Then, in October 2013, an outbreak began in French Polynesia; around 10,000 cases were reported, less than 100 of which presented with severe neurological or autoimmune complications. One confirmed case of autochthonous transmission occurred in Chile in 2014, which means a person was infected while they were in Chile rather than somewhere else. Cases were also reported that year from several Pacific Islands. The virus was detected in Chile until June 2014, but then it seemed to disappear.

    Fast forward to May 2015, when the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) issued an alert regarding the first confirmed Zika virus infection in Brazil. Since then, several thousand suspected cases of the disease and a previously unknown complication—a kind of birth defect known as microcephaly where the baby’s brain is abnormally small—have been reported from Brazil. (It’s important to note that while the connection between the virus and microcephaly is strongly suspected, the link has yet to be conclusively demonstrated.)

    Currently, there is no vaccine for Zika, though the recent rise in cases has spurred research efforts. Thus, preventing mosquito bites is the only prophylactic measure available.

    The recent spread of the virus has been described as “explosive”; Zika has now been detected in 25 countries and territories. The rising concern over both the number of cases and reports of serious complications has led the most affected areas in Brazil to declare a state of emergency, and on Monday, The World Health Organization’s Director-General will convene an International Health Regulations Emergency Committee on Zika virus and the observed increase in neurological disorders and neonatal malformations. At this emergency meeting, the committee will discuss mitigation strategies and decide whether the organization will officially declare the virus a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern.”

    GM to the Rescue

    aedes_aegypti

    The mosquito to blame for the outbreak—Aedes aegypti—doesn’t belong in the Americas. It’s native to Africa, and was only introduced in the new world when Europeans began to explore the globe. In the 20th century, mosquito control programs nearly eradicated the unwelcome menace from the Americas (largely thanks to the use of the controversial pesticide DDT); as late as the mid 1970s, Brazil and 15 other nations were Aedes aegypti-free. But despite the successes, eradication efforts were halted, allowing the mosquito to regain its lost territory.

    The distribution of Aedes aegypti in the Americas in 1970 and 2002.

    Effective control measures are expensive and difficult to maintain, so at the tail end of the 20th century and into the 21st, scientists began to explore creative means of controlling mosquito populations, including the use of genetic modification. Oxitec’s mosquitoes are one of the most exciting technologies to have emerged from this period. Here’s how they work, as I described in a post almost exactly a year ago:

    While these mosquitoes are genetically modified, they aren’t “cross-bred with the herpes simplex virus and E. colibacteria” (that would be an interkingdom ménage à trois!)—and no, they cannot be “used to bite people and essentially make them immune to dengue fever and chikungunya” (they aren’t carrying a vaccine!). The mosquitoes that Oxitec have designed are what scientists call “autocidal” or possess a “dominant lethal genetic system,” which is mostly fancy wording for “they die all by themselves”. The males carry inserted DNA which causes the mosquitoes to depend upon a dietary supplement that is easy to provide in the lab, but not available in nature. When the so-called mutants breed with normal females, all of the offspring require the missing dietary supplement because the suicide genes passed on from the males are genetically dominantThus, the offspring die before they can become adults. The idea is, if you release enough such males in an area, then the females won’t have a choice but to mate with them. That will mean there will be few to no successful offspring in the next generation, and the population is effectively controlled.

    Male mosquitoes don’t bite people, so they cannot serve as transmission vectors for Zika or any other disease. As for fears that GM females will take over: less than 5% of all offspring survive in the laboratory, and as Glen Slade, director of Oxitec’s Brazilian branch notes, those are the best possible conditions for survival. “It is considered unlikely that the survival rate is anywhere near that high in the harsher field conditions since offspring reaching adulthood will have been weakened by the self-limiting gene,” he told me. And contrary to what the conspiracy theorists claim, scientists have shown that tetracycline in the environment doesn’t increase that survival rate.

    Brazil, a hotspot for dengue and other such diseases, is one of the countries where Oxitec is testing their mozzies—so far, everywhere that Oxitec’s mosquitoes have been released, the local populations have been suppressed by about 90%.

    Wrong Place, Wrong Time

    Now that we’ve covered the background on the situation, let’s dig into the conspiracy theory. We’ll start with the main argument laid out as evidence: that the Zika outbreak began in the same location at the same time as the first Oxitec release:

    Though it’s often said, it’s worth repeating: correlation doesn’t equal causation. If it did, then Nicholas Cage is to blame for people drowning (Why, Nick? WHY?). But even beyond that, there are bigger problems with this supposed correlation: even by those maps, the site of release is on the fringe of the Zika hotspot, not the center of it. Just look at the two overlaid:

    The epicenter of the outbreak and the release clearly don’t line up—the epicenter is on the coast rather than inland where the map points. Furthermore, the first confirmed cases weren’t reported in that area, but in the town of Camaçari, Bahia, which is—unsurprisingly—on the coast and several hundred kilometers from the release site indicated.

    But perhaps more importantly, the location on the map isn’t where the mosquitoes were released. That map points to Juazeiro de Norte, Ceará, which is a solid 300 km away from Juazeiro, Bahia—the actual site of the mosquito trial. That location is even more on the edge of the Zika-affected area:

    1: Juaziero de Norte, the identified location in by conspiracy theorists. 2: Juaziero, the actual location of Oxitec's release trial, about 300 km away.

    The mistake was made initially by the Redditor who proposed the conspiracy theory and has been propagated through lazy journalistic practices by every proponent since. Here’s a quick tip: if you’re basing your conspiracy theory on location coincidence, it’s probably a good idea to actually get the location right.

    They’re also wrong about the date. According to the D.C. Clothesline:

    By July 2015, shortly after the GM mosquitoes were first released into the wild in Juazeiro, Brazil, Oxitec proudly announced they had “successfully controlled the Aedes aegypti mosquito that spreads dengue fever, chikungunya and zika virus, by reducing the target population by more than 90%.”

    However, GM mosquitoes weren’t first released in Juazeiro, Bahia (let alone Juazeiro de Norte, Ceará) in 2015. Instead, the announcement by Oxitec was of the published results of a trial that occurred in Juaziero between May 2011 and Sept 2012—a fact which is clearly stated in the methods and results of the paper that Oxitec was so excited to share.

    A new control effort employing Oxitec mosquitoes did begin in April 2015, but not in Juaziero, or any of the northeastern states of Brazil where the disease outbreak is occurring. As another press release from Oxitec states, the 2015 releases of their GM mosquitoes were in Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil:

    Following approval by Brazil’s National Biosafety Committee (CTNBio) for releases throughout the country, Piracicaba’s CECAP/Eldorado district became the world’s first municipality to partner directly with Oxitec and in April 2015 started releasing its self-limiting mosquitoes whose offspring do not survive. By the end of the calendar year, results had already indicated a reduction in wild mosquito larvae by 82%. Oxitec’s efficacy trials across Brazil, Panama and the Cayman Islands all resulted in a greater than 90% suppression of the wild Ae. aegypti mosquito population–an unprecedented level of control.

    Based on the positive results achieved to date, the ‘Friendly Aedes aegypti Project’ in CECAP/Eldorado district covering 5,000 people has been extended for another year. Additionally, Oxitec and Piracicaba have signed a letter of intent to expand the project to an area of 35,000-60,000 residents. This geographic region includes the city’s center and was chosen due to the large flow of people commuting between it and surrounding neighborhoods which may contribute to the spread of infestations and infections.

    Piracicaba mosquito control results

     

    Piracicaba, for the record, is more than 1300 miles away from the Zika epicenter:

    TKTK

    So not only did the conspiracy theorists get the location of the first Brazil release wrong, they either got the date wrong, too, or got the location of the 2015 releases really, really off. Either way, the central argument that the release of GM mosquitoes by Oxitec coincides with the first cases of Zika virus simply doesn’t hold up.

    Scientists Speak Out

    As this ludicrous conspiracy theory has spread, so, too, has the scientific opposition to it. “Frankly, I’m a little sick of this kind of anti-science platform,” said vector ecologist Tanjim Hossain from the University of Miami, when I asked him what he thought. “This kind of fear mongering is not only irresponsible, but may very well be downright harmful to vulnerable populations from a global health perspective.”

    Despite the specious allusions made by proponents of the conspiracy, this is still not Jurassic Park, says Hossain.

    “We have a problem where ZIKV is spreading rapidly and is widely suspected of causing serious health issues,” he continued. “How do we solve this problem? An Integrated Vector Management (IVM) approach is key. We need to use all available tools, old and new, to combat the problem. GM mosquitoes are a fairly new tool in our arsenal. The way I see it, they have the potential to quickly reduce a local population of vector mosquitoes to near zero, and thereby can also reduce the risk of disease transmission. This kind of strategy could be particularly useful in a disease outbreak ‘hotspot’ because you could hypothetically stop the disease in its tracks so to speak.”

    Other scientists have shared similar sentiments. Alex Perkins, a biological science professor at Notre Dame, told Business Insider that rather than causing the outbreak, GM mosquitoes might be our best chance to fight it. “It could very well be the case that genetically modified mosquitos could end up being one of the most important tools that we have to combat Zika,” Perkins said. “If anything, we should potentially be looking into using these more.”

    Brazilian authorities couldn’t be happier with the results so far, and are eager to continue to fight these deadly mosquitoes by any means they can. “The initial project in CECAP/Eldorado district clearly showed that the ‘friendly Aedes aegypti solution’ made a big difference for the inhabitants of the area, helping to protect them from the mosquito that transmits dengue, Zika and chikungunya,” said Pedro Mello, secretary of health in Piracicaba. He notes that during the 2014/2015 dengue season, before the trial there began, there were 133 cases of dengue. “In 2015/2016, after the beginning of the Friendly Aedes aegypti Project, we had only one case.”

    It’s long past time to stop villainizing Oxitec’s mosquitoes for crimes they didn’t commit. Claire BernishThe Daily MFailMirror and everyone else who has spread these baseless accusations: I’m talking to you. The original post was in the Conspiracy subreddit—what more of a red flag for “this is wildly inaccurate bullsh*t” do you need? (After all, if this is a legit source, where are your reports on the new hidden messages in the $100 bill? or why the Illuminati wants people to believe in aliens?). It’s well known that large-scale conspiracy theories are mathematically challenged. Don’t just post whatever crap is spewed on the internet because you know it’ll get you a few clicks. It’s dishonest, dangerous, and, frankly, deplorable to treat nonsense as possible truth just to prey upon your audience’s very real fears of an emerging disease. You, with your complete lack of integrity, are maggots feeding on the decay of modern journalism, and I mean that with no disrespect to maggots.

     

    Roraima registra 17 mil focos e cenário se parece com o de 1998 (Folha BV)

    QUEIMADAS AVANÇAM

    Situação do fogo caminha para uma situação muito semelhante ao grande incêndio de 1998, só que desta vez o Estado está melhor preparado

    Por Luan Guilherme Correia

    Em 27/01/2016 às 00:00

    Estimativa da Defesa Civil é que o Estado receba R$ 50 milhões para o combate à estiagem e incêndios (Foto: Rodrigo Sales)

    A situação crítica dos municípios de Roraima com a forte estiagem elevou para 17.567 o número de focos de calor registrados somente nos 26 primeiros dias do ano. Os dados são do Sistema de Informações Geográficas e Banco de Dados de todos os Focos, do Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (Inpe). A situação é muito semelhante ao grande incêndio que atingiu o Estado no ano de 1998.

    Os municípios mais afetados por queimadas são Caracaraí, com 4.029 focos; Rorainópolis, com 3.817; Caroebe, com 2.007; Mucajaí, com 1.772; e Iracema, com 1.173 registros. Os municípios de Bonfim, Cantá, São Luiz do Anauá, Pacaraima, Amajari, São João da Baliza, Normandia e Alto Alegre também registraram focos e decretaram situação de emergência por conta da estiagem.

    No decreto, os municípios justificaram a emergência para ação imediata de socorro e assistência à população. A alegação é de que a malha viária do Estado é de 7.949 quilômetros, sendo muitas vezes o único meio de acesso às localidades que sofrem com a estiagem. Cada município solicitou do Governo do Estado veículos do tipo pick-up para transporte terrestre de material e pessoal, máquinas retroescavadeiras e escavadeiras para recuperação e escavação de bebedouros e cacimbas, além das pranchas para o transporte dos maquinários.

    De acordo com a Defesa Civil Estadual, todos os municípios roraimenses enfrentam graves problemas com a escassez de água e os incêndios florestais. Para contornar a grave situação, o Corpo de Bombeiros mantém bases extras de combate a incêndios e queimadas.

    As bases estão montadas em Alto Alegre, Amajari, na região de Samaúma (Mucajaí), no Repartimento (Iracema) e na Vila Felix Pinto (Cantá), além do reforço do efetivo na Capital e nas companhias de Caracaraí, Rorainópolis e Pacaraima. São Luiz do Anauá e Caroebe, na região de Campos Novos, Sul do Estado, onde há a maior incidência de incêndios, inclusive criminosos, devem receber bases nos próximos dias.

    O secretário-executivo da Defesa Civil, coronel Claudimar Ferreira, destacou a necessidade de brigadistas para atuarem nas bases dos municípios. “Precisamos de reforço o quanto antes. Para isso, iremos contratar 150 brigadistas e vamos receber mais 100 homens do Exército. Além disso, pedimos mais efetivo da Secretaria Nacional da Defesa Civil para controlar a situação”, disse.

    Conforme ele, apesar de os incêndios em áreas de pastagens estarem sendo controlados, a prática criminosa de produtores rurais e de anônimos têm dificultado o trabalho dos brigadistas. “Essa prática não conseguimos dar conta, porque enquanto os bombeiros trabalham, outras pessoas ateiam fogo”, lamentou.

    A situação mais crítica, de acordo com Cleudiomar, está na região conhecida como “Arco de Fogo”, que abrange os municípios de Mucajaí, Cantá, Alto Alegre e Amajari. “Tivemos que deslocar para lá vários grupos de outras bases porque a situação saiu do controle. O caos foi total, mas com o reforço do efetivo essas áreas queimadas estão mais controladas”, explicou.

    Para ele, Roraima está se encaminhando para um cenário caótico por conta da estiagem, pior do que o encontrado em 1998, quando o Estado ganhou destaque mundial pelos grandes incêndios. “Naquela época, quando demos as primeiras respostas, a situação já era incontrolável. Hoje, estamos muito mais tranquilos, porque estamos nos planejando a tempo de evitar grandes prejuízos”, afirmou.

    Estimativa de recursos destinados ao combate à estiagem é de R$ 50 milhões

    Somando os recursos necessários para combater a estiagem em Roraima, a estimativa é que o Estado receba R$ 50 milhões nos próximos meses. Conforme o coronel Cleudiomar Ferreira, o montante deverá ser enviado após a formalização de um documento que vai definir onde e em que será aplicado.

    Os recursos devem ser empregados com a locação de veículos, máquinas, carretas, carros-pipa, além da contratação de brigadistas e reconstrução de pontes destruídas pela estiagem. “Após redimensionar toda essa estrutura, é provável que isso consiga atingir esse montante. Isso está sendo levantado entre a Defesa Civil e as Secretarias de Agricultura, Planejamento e Infraestrutura”, frisou o coronel. (L.G.C)

    Meteorologista da Funceme. “A gente fica feliz com essas chuvas” (O Povo)

    AGUANAMBI 282

    DOM 24/01/2016

    De acordo com o meteorologista da Funceme Raul Fritz, vórtice ciclônico, característico da pré-estação chuvosa, pode render chuvas intensas em janeiro, como ocorreu no ano de 2004

    Luana Severo, luanasevero@opovo.com.br

    FOTOS IANA SOARES

    Segundo Fritz, a ciência climática não chegou a um nível tão preciso para ter uma previsão confiável 

    Cotidiano

    “Nós não queremos ser Deus, apenas tentamos antecipar o que pode acontecer”. Nascido em Natal, no Rio Grande do Norte, Raul Fritz, de 53 anos, é supervisor da unidade de Tempo e Clima da Fundação Cearense de Meteorologia e Recursos Hídricos (Funceme). Ele, que afirmou não querer tomar o lugar de Deus nas decisões sobre o clima, começou a trabalhar para a Funceme em 1988, ainda como estagiário, pouco após uma estiagem que se prolongou por cinco anos no Estado, entre 1979 e 1983.

    Os anos de prática e a especialização em meteorologia por satélite conferem a Fritz a credibilidade necessária para, por meio de mapas, equações numéricas e o comportamento da natureza, estimar se chove ou não no semiárido cearense. Ele compôs, portanto, a equipe de meteorologistas da Fundação que, na última quarta-feira, 20, previu 65% de chances de chuvas abaixo da média entre os meses de fevereiro e abril deste ano prognóstico que, se concretizado, fará o Ceará completar cinco anos de seca.

    Em entrevista ao O POVO, ele detalha o parecer, define o sistema climático cearense e comenta sobre a conflituosa relação entre a Funceme e a população, que sustenta o hábito de desconfiar de todas as previsões do órgão, principalmente porque, um dia após a divulgação do prognóstico, o Estado foi tomado de susto por uma intensa chuvarada.

    O POVO – Mesmo com o prognóstico desanimador de 65% de chances de chuvas abaixo da média entre os meses de fevereiro e abril, o cearense tem renovado a fé num “bom inverno” devido às recentes precipitações influenciadas pelo Vórtice Ciclônico de Altos Níveis (VCAN). Há a possibilidade de esse fenômeno perdurar?

    Raul Fritz – Sim. Esse sistema que está atuando agora apresenta maior intensidade em janeiro. Ele pode perdurar até meados de fevereiro, principalmente pelas circunstâncias meteorológicas atmosféricas que a gente vê no momento.

    OP – Por que o VCAN não tem relação com a quadra chuvosa?

    Raul – A quadra chuvosa é caracterizada pela atuação de um sistema muito importante para o Norte e o Nordeste, que é a Zona de Convergência Intertropical (ZCI). É o sistema que traz chuvas de forma mais regular para o Estado. O vórtice é muito irregular. Tem anos em que ele traz boas chuvas, tem anos em que praticamente não traz.

    OP – O senhor consegue lembrar outra época em que o VCAN teve uma atuação importante em relação às chuvas?

    Raul – Em 2004, houve muita chuva no período de janeiro. Em fevereiro também tivemos boas chuvas, mas, principalmente, em janeiro, ao ponto de encher o reservatório do Castanhão, que tinha sido recém-construído. Mas, os meses seguintes a esses dois não foram bons meses de chuva, então é possível a gente ter esse período de agora bastante chuvoso, seguido de chuvas mais escassas.

    OP – O que impulsiona o quadro de estiagem
    no Ceará?

    Raul – Geograficamente, existem fatores naturais que originam um estado climático de semiaridez. É uma região que tem uma irregularidade muito grande na distribuição das chuvas, tanto ao longo do território como no tempo. Chuvas, às vezes, acontecem bem num período do ano e ruim no seguinte, e se concentram no primeiro semestre, principalmente entre fevereiro e maio, que a gente chama de ‘quadra chuvosa’. Aí tem a pré-estação que, em alguns anos, se mostra boa. Aparenta ser o caso deste ano.

    OP – A última seca prolongada no Ceará, que durou cinco anos, ocorreu de 1979 a 1983. Estamos, atualmente, seguindo para o mesmo quadro. O que é capaz de interromper esse ciclo?

    Raul – O ciclo geralmente não ultrapassa ou tende a não ultrapassar esse período. A própria variabilidade climática natural interrompe. Poucos casos chegam a ser tão extensos. É mais frequente de dois a três anos. Mas, às vezes, podem se estender a esses dois exemplos, de cinco anos seguidos de chuvas abaixo da média. Podemos ter, também, alguma influência do aquecimento global, que, possivelmente, perturba as condições naturais. Fenômenos como El Niños intensos contribuem. Quando eles chegam e se instalam no Oceano Pacífico, tendem a ampliar esse quadro grave de seca, como é o caso de agora. Esse El Niño que está atuando no momento é equivalente ao de 1997 e 1998, que provocou uma grande seca.

    OP – É uma tendência esse panorama de grandes secas intercaladas?

    Raul – Sim, e é mais frequente a gente ter anos com chuvas entre normal e abaixo da média, do que anos acima da média.

    OP – A sabedoria popular, na voz dos profetas da chuva, aposta em precipitações regulares este ano. Em que ponto ela converge com o conhecimento científico?

    Raul – O profeta da chuva percebe, pela análise da natureza, que os seres vivos estão reagindo às condições de tempo e, a partir disso, elabora uma previsão de longo prazo, que é climática. Mas, essa previsão climática pode não corresponder exatamente a um prolongamento daquela variação que ocorreu naquele momento em que ele fez a avaliação. Se acontecer, ele acha que acertou a previsão de clima. Se não, ele considera que errou. Mas, pode coincidir que essa variação a curto prazo se repita e se transforme em longo prazo. Aí é o ponto em que converge. A Funceme tenta antecipar o que pode acontecer num prazo maior, envolvendo três meses a frente. É um exercício muito difícil.

    OP – Geralmente, há uma descrença da população em torno das previsões da Funceme. Como desmistificar isso?

    Raul – A previsão oferece probabilidades e qualquer uma delas pode acontecer, mas, a gente indica a mais provável. São três que nós lançamos. Acontece que a população não consegue entender essa informação, que é padrão internacional de divulgação. Acha que é uma coisa determinística. Que, se a Funceme previu como maior probabilidade termos chuvas abaixo da média em certo período, acha que já previu seca. Mas, a mais provável é essa mesmo, até para alertar às pessoas com atividades que dependem das chuvas e ao próprio Governo a tomarem precauções, se prevenirem e não só reagirem a uma seca já instalada.

    OP – A Funceme, então, também se surpreende com as ocorrências de menor probabilidade, como o VCAN?

    Raul – Sim, porque esses vórtices são de difícil previsibilidade. A ciência não conseguiu chegar num nível de precisão grande para ter uma previsão confiável para esse período (de pré-estação chuvosa). De qualquer forma, nos é exigido dar alguma ideia do que possa acontecer. É um risco muito grande que a Funceme assume. A gente sofre críticas por isso. Por exemplo, a gente lançou a previsão de chuvas abaixo da média, aí no outro dia vem uma chuva muito intensa. As pessoas não compreendem, acham que essas chuvas do momento vão se prolongar até o restante da temporada. Apesar da crítica da população, que chega até a pedir para fechar o órgão, a gente fica feliz com a chegada
    dessas chuvas.

    Frase

    “A gente lançou a previsão de chuvas abaixo da média, aí no outro dia vem uma chuva muito intensa. As pessoas não compreendem, acham que essas chuvas do momento vão se prolongar até o restante da temporada”

    Raul Fritz, meteorologista da Funceme

    VIDEO

    Raul Fritz, o cientista da chuva

    IANA SOARES/O POVO

    Nascido em Natal, no Rio Grande do Norte, Raul Fritz, de 53 anos, é supervisor da unidade de Tempo e Clima da Fundação Cearense de Meteorologia e Recursos Hídricos (Funceme). Ele começou a trabalhar para a Funceme em 1988, ainda como estagiário, pouco após uma estiagem que se prolongou por cinco anos no Estado, entre 1979 e 1983.

    Efeitos bifásicos da ayahuasca (Plantando Consciência)

    30 de setembro de 2015

    Efeitos bifásicos da Ayahuasca

    Foi publicado hoje na revista científica PLOS ONE artigo com os resultados de nosso estudo neurocientífico sobre a ayahuasca. Fruto de pouco mais de quatro anos de intenso e dedicado trabalho, a pesquisa foi conduzida na UNIFESP com financiamento da FAPESP, com cooperações na USP, UFABC, Louisiana State University (EUA) e da University of Auckland (Nova Zelândia). Além da colaboração da União do Vegetal que nos forneceu Hoasca para fins de pesquisa, e de 20 bravos(as) psiconautas experientes no uso da bebida amazônica. Nossos(as) voluntários(as) se disponibilizaram a participar de um processo em um ambiente e com uma proposta que difere em muito dos usos tradicionais, e era bastante desafiadora. Beberam ayahuasca num laboratório universitário, sem canto nem palo santo, sem reza, dança ou fogueira, no meio da conturbada metrópole paulista. E tiveram que usar uma touca que gravava a atividade elétrica de seus cérebros continuamente num notebook próximo a elas. Sentadas em uma poltrona confortável, doaram pequenas quantidades de sangue a cada 25 minutos. Apesar de não ter a fundamental condução dos guias, curandeiros, mestres ou maestros, que fazem trabalhos tão importantes quanto a bebida em si, e de tomarem ayahuasca uma pessoa por vez, foram acompanhados com carinho e cuidado pela equipe científica, nunca sendo deixados sozinhos ou desamparados, e sempre com os baldinhos à disposição… Tudo isso em prol da colaboração dos saberes tradicionais com os saberes científicos e tecnológicos.Uma pesquisa desse tipo se justifica por várias razões, desde um entendimento mais profundo sobre nossa resposta fisiológica aos compostos químicos presentes na ayahuasca, que nos fornece dados cruciais sobre potenciais terapêuticos e segurança de uso; até informações mais sofisticadas sobre as relações entre cérebro e consciência, o chamado “hard-problem”. Com os resultados dessa jornada aprofundamos e expandimos o conhecimento sobre os efeitos dos componentes moleculares da bebida sagrada, sobre como nossos corpos recebem estas moléculas e que efeitos elas ajudam a desencadear, especialmente no cérebro. Ao minimizarmos as intervenções biomédicas somente ao estritamente necessário e ao adotarmos uma postura observacional, deixando e encorajando que os voluntários passassem a maior parte do tempo de olhos fechados em estado introspectivo, pudemos revelar uma imagem fascinante sobre os efeitos da ayahuasca no cérebro. Este efeito ocorre em duas fases qualitativamente distintas e este perfil bifásico ajuda a explicar contradições de estudos semelhantes feitos anteriormente por outras equipes. Com isso abrimos mais portas para fascinantes investigações futuras sobre os diversos estados de consciência que podem ser alcançados com a bebida amazônica.

    Cerca de uma hora após a ingestão da ayahuasca, ocorreram diminuições das ondas alfa (8 a 12 ciclos por segundo), especialmente no córtex temporo-parietal, com uma certa tendência de lateralização para o hemisfério esquerdo. A segunda fase ocorre cerca de uma hora depois (ou seja, cerca de duas horas após a ingestão) e enquanto as ondas alfa foram retornando a um padrão parecido com o que estava antes da ingestão da ayahuasca, os ritmos gama, de frequências muito altas (30 a 100 ciclos por segundo), se intensificaram por quase todo o córtex cerebral, incluindo o córtex frontal. Estas oscilações elétricas em distintas frequências, que ocorrem perpetuamente e simultaneamente em todo o cérebro, são resultado da complexa interação da atividade de bilhões de células cerebrais. E estão relacionadas com todas as funções do cérebro, inclusive os aspectos psicológicos e os estados de consciência. Por exemplo, durante o sono profundo predomina no córtex cerebral uma frequência lenta, de 1 a 4 ciclos por segundo, chamada delta. Enquanto durante a maioria dos sonhos, predomina a frequência teta (4 a 8 ciclos por segundo). Ao caracterizar as principais mudanças nestas frequências de oscilações neurais avançamos na criação de um mapa neurocientífico sobre o estado de consciência desencadeado pela ingestão de ayahuasca.

    Há variadas nuances de interpretação para estes dados (e muitos estudos posteriores que podem ser feitos de acordo com cada interpretação, para testas hipóteses específicas). Mas a minha favorita e que discutimos no artigo é de que o ritmo alfa é resultado de atividades inibitórias no cérebro, e o ritmo gama representa atividade neural crucial para a consciência. Quando fechamos os olhos e temos a sensacao de um campo visual escuro, sem imagens, o ritmo alfa se fortalece nas regiões do cérebro que recebem estímulos vindos dos olhos. Ou seja, quando estamos de olhos fechados não apenas a informação que chega dos olhos está ausente, mas as áreas visuais são inibidas por “centros superiores” do córtex, capazes de modular a atividade de áreas sensoriais. E nós temos a experiência subjetiva de um mundo escuro e de ausência de visão. No caso da ayahuasca, encontramos um enfraquecimento dessa inibição em áreas multisensoriais. Ou seja, regiões que estão envolvidas não só com visão, mas com audição, tato, paladar, olfato e também com sensações corpóreas das mais diversas. Faz sentido portanto que esta diminuição de alfa esteja relacionada com o efeito tão comum de experiência de mais sensações e mais estímulos durante o efeito da ayahuasca quando comparado com o estado ordinário de consciência, incluindo as famosas visões de olhos fechados. Já o acelerado gama está relacionado com o que se chama na neurociência de integração. Enquanto áreas diversas do cérebro estão relacionadas a percepções subjetivas distintas, como os cinco sentidos mencionados acima, nossa experiência consciente é unificada. Essa unificação de atividades neurais em áreas anatomicamente distintas ocorre nas oscilações rápidas na frequência gama, que permitem ao cérebro temporariamente juntar as peças de um complexo quebra cabeças de atividade neural. Esse aumento de gama pode ajudar a explicar porque durante a ayahuasca a percepção de sons e imagens, por exemplo, parece se fundir e criar relações peculiares, não perceptíveis durante a consciência ordinária, quando o cérebro tende a organizar a atividade neural relacionada aos cinco sentidos de maneira parcialmente independente. Essa função do gama em unificar ou integrar informações no cérebro é conhecida de longa data, pelo menos desde a obra pioneira do cientista Chileno Francisco Varela. E foi observada em dois indíviduos após tomarem ayahuasca em trabalho do antropólogo Luis Eduardo Luna e colaboradores há uma década. Ao confirmarmos os dados de Luna e colaboradores com nova e mais rigorosa metodologia, com mais pessoas e ao detectarmos a combinação destes efeitos com as reduções em alfa, abrimos portas importantíssimas no entendimento não só dos estados não-ordinários de consciência, mas da teoria neurocientifica sobre a consciência como um todo. Um exemplo é uma teoria proposta recentemente sobre a ação dos psicodélicos que sugere que uma das características principais do cérebro durante o efeito de psicodélicos sejam intensificações do gama. Para Andrew Gallimore, do Japão, que se baseia na influente teoria da informacao integrada, ou IIT (integrated information theory), a mais promissora teoria neurocientífica sobre a consciência, a expansão da consciência com psicodélicos é mesmo possível dentro de uma perspectiva neurocientífica, e provavelmente depende do ritmo gama. Esta expansão da consciência inclui a percepção subjetiva de mais conteúdo, de maior intensidade, incluindo fusões entre os sentidos e possivelmente a experiência subjetiva de intensidades e qualidades não perceptíveis durante a consciência ordinária, como cores mais vívidas e brilhantes e estados emocionais mais intensos do que jamais experienciados fora do estado psicodélico. O gama também tem papel fundamental na teoria da consciência proposta pelo matemático Sir Roger Penrose e pelo anestesiologista Stuart Hameroff. Segundo a teoria deles, oscilações na faixa de 40 ciclos por segundo seriam importantes ao permitir reverberações menores e muito mais aceleradas nos microtúbulos, uma rede de fibras e filamentos que percorre todas as células do nosso corpo – e do cérebro.

    Ademais de caracterizar as oscilações e regiões corticais mais importantes no processo neural relacionado à modificação da consciência durante a ayahuasca, fizemos coletas periódicas de sangue para quantificar os princípios ativos da ayahuasca e seus metabólitos. E encontramos que durante a primeira fase a concentração da DMT e da harmina estavam próximas do máximo, sendo que na segunda fase acontecem os picos de harmalina e tetrahidroharmina. Com uma análise estatística sofisticada e inédita, desenvolvida especialmente para este estudo, demonstramos que este efeito bifásico no cérebro esta relacionado à concentração sanguínea de vários componentes do chá. Isto expande a visão científica predominante que foca apenas na famosa DMT. De acordo com este modelo, o papel do cipó é apenas de inibir a digestão da DMT. Mas “ayahuasca” é um dos muitos nomes não só da bebida, mas do cipó jagube ou mariri, catalogado nos anais científicos como Banisteriopsis caapi. Isto revela que, para os povos tradicionais, é o cipó a planta mais importante. E de fato há preparações de ayahuasca feitas somente com o cipó, sem qualquer outra planta. Mas na farmacologia esse quadro foi invertido, dando-se ênfase na psicoatividade da DMT apenas, que não vem do cipó, mas de outras plantas que frequentemente são adicionadas no preparo da bebida, como a rainha no Brasil e Peru (Psychotria viridis) ou a chagropanga na Colômbia (Dyplopteris cabrerana). Mas nossa análise com 10 moléculas (DMT, NMT e DMT-NO; Harmina e harmol; Harmalina e harmalol; THH e THH-OH e também o metabólito serotonérgico IAA) revelou associações importantes entre níveis plasmáticos de DMT, harmina, harmalina e tetraidroharmina, bem como alguns metabólitos como a DMT-NO, e os efeitos cerebrais em alfa e gama em momentos distintos da experiência. Revelamos portanto que a psicoatividade da ayahuasca não pode ser totalmente explicada apenas pelas concentrações de DMT, dando um passo importante para reaproximar o saber científico dos saberes tradicionais.

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    Descobrimos ainda que a concentração de harmalina (e apenas de harmalina) está correlacionada com o momento em que os voluntários(as) vomitaram. Ou seja, a harmalina desempenha um papel fundamental tanto no cérebro, estando relacionada a intensificação das ondas gama, mas também nos efeitos periféricos da ayahuasca, como o vômito. Isso reforça a idéia de que o vômito tem relações importantes com a experiência psicológica, sendo talvez mais apropriado chamá-lo de purga, termo que reforça a idéia de que ocorre uma associação entre físico e psicológico neste momento da experiência. Esses resultados sobre a harmalina também dão nova importância para as pesquisas pioneiras de Claudio Naranjo, terapeuta Chileno que foi um dos primeiros a estudar ayahuasca desde um ponto de vista médico-científico, nos anos 60. A proposta de Naranjo, de que a harmalina era o principal componente psicoativo da ayahuasca foi, entretanto, quase que totalmente esquecida em prol do foco na DMT a partir dos anos 80. Outro fator importante contra a proposta de Naranjo é que as concentrações de harmalina na ayahuasca são em geral abaixo das doses de harmalina que, sozinha, desencadeiam efeitos psicoativos nítidos, conforme relato subjetivo das pessoas que ingeriram harmalina nos estudos de Naranjo. Mas nunca foi testado o efeito da harmalina combinada com a harmina e a tetraidroharmina, como ocorre na ayahuasca. E então nossos resultados reforçam a idéia de que a harmalina também pode ter contribuições importantes no efeito psicoativo da ayahuasca quando em combinação com as outras beta-carbolinas vindas do cipó. Interessantemente, em quase todos os casos a purga ocorreu após a primeira fase, quando os níveis de DMT estão próximos do máximo que atingem no sangue. Como a elevação da concentração de harmalina no sangue é mais lenta que da DMT e da harmina, vomitar pouco interfere nos efeitos da primeira fase e nas concentrações destas duas moléculas, e ajuda a explicar porque mesmo quem vomita rápido pode ter experiências fortes e profundas. Mas vomitar potencialmente interfere nas concentrações de tetraidroharmina, que é a molécula cujas concentrações sobem mais lentamente, e pode permanecer em circulação por alguns dias, dependendo da capacidade de metabolização de cada indivíduo.

    Importante notar ainda que o perfil bifásico foi observado com ingestão de apenas um copo (mas com uma dose grande). Mas sabemos que nos usos rituais é muito frequente os participantes tomarem mais de uma dose, com intervalo de uma hora ou mais. É possível então que nestes casos ocorram variadas combinações de efeitos, como por exemplo a segunda fase de uma primeira dose (aumento de gama) coincidir com a primeira fase de uma segunda dose (diminuição de alfa). Isso potencialmente geraria estados cerebrais (e por correlação, estados de consciência) não observados na pesquisa com apenas uma dose. Isto ajuda a entender porque muitas pessoas relatam que a segunda dose é sempre uma “caixinha de surpresas”, e não apenas a intensificação ou prolongação dos efeitos da primeira toma. Ao depender do perfil metabólico de cada pessoa, do tamanho de cada dose, da proporção destas moléculas na bebida e do intervalo entre elas, pode-se atingir outros estados mesclados entre as duas fases observadas na pesquisa. Some-se a isto as influências ambientais, psicológicas, motivacionais e espirituais e temos uma prática de exploração da consciência que não cabe numa resposta simples e singular sobre qual “o efeito” da ayahuasca.

    Do ponto de vista neurocientífico, estas possíveis combinações são muito intrigantes, porque relações entre as frequências alfa e gama no córtex parietal e no frontal estão envolvidas em processos de reavaliação psicológica e emocional. Ou seja, quando fazemos certas formas de introspecção que resultam em ressignificação de eventos emocionais de nossas vidas, estas áreas do cérebro se comunicam através de oscilações elétricas nestas duas faixas de frequência. E estas mesmas frequências e áreas cerebrais estão envolvidas em processos criativos de resolução de problemas. Ou seja, através de nossa pesquisa, a neurociência começa a convergir com o saber ancestral ao reafirmar o potencial da ayahuasca em nutrir a criatividade e o autoconhecimento, facilitando formas de terapia focadas no potencial de cada indíviduo em crescer e se desenvolver de maneira consciente.

    Para saber mais, confira abaixo minha palestra na World Ayahuasca Confrence, em Ibiza ano passado (disponível com legendas em português e inglês). Ou ainda a mais antiga “Ayahuasca e as ondas cerebrais“, realizada no Brasil no início deste projeto. Ou se você quer mesmo mergulhar fundo, acesse gratuitamente o artigo científico na íntegra.

    Referência: Schenberg EE, Alexandre JFM, Filev R, Cravo AM, Sato JR, Muthukumaraswamy SD, et al. (2015) Acute Biphasic Effects of Ayahuasca. PLoS ONE 10(9): e0137202. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0137202

     

    Is human behavior controlled by our genes? Richard Levins reviews ‘The Social Conquest of Earth’ (Climate & Capitalism)

    “Failing to take class division into account is not simply a political bias. It also distorts how we look at human evolution as intrinsically bio-social and human biology as socialized biology.”

     

    August 1, 2012

    Edward O. Wilson. The Social Conquest of Earth. Liverwright Publishing, New York, 2012

    reviewed by Richard Levins

    In the 1970s, Edward O. Wilson, Richard Lewontin, Stephen Jay Gould and I were colleagues in Harvard’s new department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology. In spite of our later divergences, I retain grateful memories of working in the field with Ed, turning over rocks, sharing beer, breaking open twigs, putting out bait (canned tuna fish) to attract the ants we were studying..

    We were part of a group that hoped to jointly write and publish articles offering a common view of evolutionary science, but that collaboration was brief, largely because Lewontin and I strongly disagreed with Wilson’s Sociobiology.

    Reductionism and Sociobiology

    Although Wilson fought hard against the reduction of biology to the study of molecules, his holism stopped there. He came to promote the reduction of social and behavioral science to biology. In his view:

    “Our lives are restrained by two laws of biology: all of life’s entities and processes are obedient to the laws of physics and chemistry; and all of life’s entities and processes have arisen through evolution and natural selection.” [Social Conquest, p. 287]

    This is true as far as it goes but fails in two important ways.

    First, it ignores the reciprocal feedback between levels. The biological creates the ensemble of molecules in the cell; the social alters the spectrum of molecules in the biosphere; biological activity creates the biosphere itself and the conditions for the maintenance of life.

    Second, it doesn’t consider how the social level alters the biological: our biology is a socialized biology.

    Higher (more inclusive) levels are indeed constrained by the laws at lower levels of organization, but they also have their own laws that emerge from the lower level yet are distinct and that also determine which chemical and physical entities are present in the organisms. In new contexts they operate differently.

    Thus for example we, like a few other animals including bears, are omnivores. For some purposes such as comparing digestive systems that’s an adequate label. But we are omnivores of a special kind: we not only acquire food by predation, but we also producefood, turning the inedible into edible, the transitory into stored food. This has had such a profound effect on our lives that it is also legitimate to refer to us as something new, productivores.

    The productivore mode of sustenance opens a whole new domain: the mode of production. Human societies have experienced different modes of production and ways to organize reproduction, each with its own dynamics, relations with the rest of nature, division into classes, and processes which restore or change it when it is disturbed.

    The division of society into classes changes how natural selection works, who is exposed to what diseases, who eats and who doesn’t eat, who does the dishes, who must do physical work, how long we can expect to live. It is no longer possible to prescribe the direction of natural selection for the whole species.

    So failing to take class division into account is not simply a political bias. It also distorts how we look at human evolution as intrinsically bio-social and human biology as socialized biology.

    The opposite of the genetic determinism of sociobiology is not “the blank slate” view that claims that our biological natures were irrelevant to behavior and society. The question is, what about our animal heritage was relevant?

    We all agree that we are animals; that as animals we need food; that we are terrestrial rather than aquatic animals; that we are mammals and therefore need a lot of food to support our high metabolic rates that maintain body temperature; that for part of our history we lived in trees and acquired characteristics adapted to that habitat, but came down from the trees with a dependence on vision, hands with padded fingers, and so on. We have big brains, with regions that have different major functions such as emotions, color vision, and language.

    But beyond these general capacities, there is widespread disagreement about which behaviors or attitudes are expressions of brain structure. The amygdala is a locus of emotion, but does it tell us what to be angry or rejoice about? It is an ancient part of our brains, but has it not evolved in response to what the rest of the brain is doing? There is higher intellectual function in the cortex, but does it tell us what to think about?

    Every part of an organism is the environment for the rest of the organism, setting the context for natural selection. In contrast to this fluid viewpoint, phrases such as “hard-wired” have become part of the pop vocabulary, applied promiscuously to all sorts of behaviors.

    In a deeper sense, asking if something is heritable is a nonsense question. Heritability is always a comparison: how much of the difference between humans and chimps is heritable? What about the differences between ourselves and Neanderthals? Between nomads and farmers?

    Social Conquest of Earth

    The Social Conquest of Earth, Ed Wilson’s latest book, continues his interest in the “eusocial” animals – ants, bees and others that live in groups with overlapping generations and a division of labor that includes altruistic behavior. As the title shows. he also continues to use the terminology of conquest and domination, so that social animals “conquer” the earth, their abundance makes them “dominate.”

    The problem that Wilson poses in this book is first, why did eusociality arise at all, and second, why is it so rare?

    Wilson is at his best when discussing the more remote past, the origins of social behavior 220 million years ago for termites, 150 million years for ants, 70-80 million years for humble bees and honey bees.

    But as he gets closer to humanity the reductionist biases that informed Sociobiology reassert themselves. Once again Wilson argues that brain architecture determines what people do socially – that war, aggression, morality, honor and hierarchy are part of “human nature.”

    Rejecting kin selection

    A major change, and one of the most satisfying parts of the book, is his rejection of kin selection as a motive force of social evolution, a theory he once defended strongly.

    Kin selection assumed that natural selection acts on genes. A gene will be favored if it results in enhancing its own survival and reproduction, but it is not enough to look at the survival of the individual. If my brother and I each have 2 offspring, a shared gene would be doubled in the next generation. But if my brother sacrifices himself so that I might leave 5 offspring while he leaves none, our shared gene will increase 250%.

    Therefore, argued the promoters of this theory, the fitness that natural selection increases has to be calculated over a whole set of kin, weighted by the closeness of their relationship. Mathematical formulations were developed to support this theory. Wilson found it attractive because it appeared to support sociobiology.

    However, plausible inference is not enough to prove a theory. Empirical studies comparing different species or traits did not confirm the kin selection hypothesis, and a reexamination of its mathematical structure (such as the fuzziness of defining relatedness) showed that it could not account for the observed natural world. Wilson devotes a lot of space to refuting kin selection because of his previous support of it: it is a great example of scientific self-correction.

    Does group selection explain social behaviour?

    Wilson has now adopted another model in which the evolution of sociality is the result of opposing processes of ordinary individual selection acting within populations, and group selection acting between populations. He invokes this model account to for religion, morality, honor and other human behaviors.

    He argues that individual selection promotes “selfishness” (that is, behavior that enhances individual survival) while group selection favors cooperative and “altruistic” behavior. The two forms of selection oppose each other, and that results in our mixed behaviors.

    “We are an evolutionary chimera living on intelligence steered by the demands of animal instinct. This is the reason we are mindlessly dismantling the biosphere and with it, our own prospects for permanent existence.” [p.13]

    But this simplistic reduction of environmental destruction to biology will not stand. Contrary to Wilson, the destruction of the biosphere is not “mindless.” It is the outcome of interactions in the noxious triad of greed, poverty, and ignorance, all produced by a socio-economic system that must expand to survive.

    For Wilson, as for many environmentalists, the driver of ecological destruction is some generic “we,” who are all in the same boat. But since the emergence of classes after the adoption of agriculture some 8-10,000 years ago it is no longer appropriate to talk of a collective “we.”

    The owners of the economy are willing to use up resources, pollute the environment, debase the quality of products, and undermine the health of the producers out of a kind of perverse economic rationality. They support their policies with theories such as climate change denial or doubting the toxicity of pesticides, and buttress it with legislation and court decisions.

    Evolution and religion

    The beginning and end of the book, a spirited critique of religion as possibly explaining human nature, is more straightforwardly materialist than the view supported by Stephen J. Gould, who argued that religion and science are separate magisteria that play equal roles in human wellbeing.

    But Wilson’s use of evidence is selective.

    For example, he argues that religion demands absolute belief from its followers – but this is true only of Christianity and Islam. Judaism lets you think what you want as long as you practice the prescribed rituals, Buddhism doesn’t care about deities or the afterlife.

    Similarly he argues that creation myths are a product of evolution:

    “Since paleolithic times … each tribe invented its own creation myths… No tribe could long survive without a creation myth… The creation myth is a Darwinian device for survival.” [p. 8]

    But the ancient Israelites did not have an origin myth when they emerged as a people in the hills of Judea around 1250 B.C.E. Although it appears at the beginning of the Bible, the Israelites did not adapt the Book of Genesis from Babylonian mythology until four centuries after Deuteronomy was written, after they had survived 200 years as a tribal confederation, two kingdoms and the Assyrian and Babylonian conquests— by then the writing of scripture was a political act, not a “Darwinian device for survival.”

    Biologizing war

    In support of his biologizing of “traits,” Wilson reviews recent research that appears to a show a biological basis for the way people see and interpret color, for the incest taboo, and for the startle response – and then asserts that inherited traits include war, hierarchy, honor and such. Ignoring the role of social class, he views these as universal traits of human nature.

    Consider war. Wilson claims that war reflects genes for group selection. “A soldier going into battle will benefit his country but he runs a higher risk of death than one who does not.” [p. 165]

    But soldiers don’t initiate conflict. We know in our own times that those who decide to make war are not those who fight the wars – but, perhaps unfortunately, sterilizing the general staff of the Pentagon and of the CIA would not produce a more peaceful America.

    The evidence against war as a biological imperative is strong. Willingness to fight is situational.

    Group selection can’t explain why soldiers have to be coerced into fighting, why desertion is a major problem for generals and is severely punished, or why resistance to recruitment is a major problem of armies. In the present militarist USA, soldiers are driven to join up through unemployment and the promises of benefits such as learning skills and getting an education and self-improvement. No recruitment posters offer the opportunity to kill people as an inducement for signing up.

    The high rates of surrender and desertion of Italian soldiers in World War II did not reflect any innate cowardice among Italians but a lack of fascist conviction. The very rarity of surrender by Japanese soldiers in the same war was not a testimony to greater bravery on the part of the Japanese but of the inculcated combination of nationalism and religion.

    As the American people turned against the Vietnam war, increased desertions and the killing of officers by the soldiers reflected their rejection of the war.

    The terrifying assaults of the Vikings during the middle ages bear no resemblance to the mellow Scandinavian culture of today, too short a time for natural selection to transform national character.

    The attempt to make war an inherited trait favored by natural selection reflects the sexism that has been endemic in sociobiology. It assumes that local groups differed in their propensity for aggression and prowess in war. The victorious men carry off the women of the conquered settlements and incorporate them into their own communities. Therefore the new generation has been selected for greater military success among the men. But the women, coming from a defeated, weaker group, would bring with them their genes for lack of prowess, a selection for military weakness! Such a selection process would be self-negating.

    Ethnocentrism

    Wilson also considers ethnocentrism to be an inherited trait: group selection leads people to favor members of their own group and reject outsiders.

    The problem is that the lines between groups vary under different circumstances. For example, in Spanish America, laws governing marriage included a large number of graded racial categories, while in North America there were usually just two. What’s more, the category definitions are far from permanent: at one time, the Irish were regarded as Black, and the whiteness of Jews was questioned.

    Adoption, immigration, mergers of clans also confound any possible genetic basis for exclusion.

    Hierarchy

    Wilson draws on the work of Herbert Simon to argue that hierarchy is a result of human nature: there will always be rulers and ruled. His argument fails to distinguish between hierarchy and leadership.

    There are other forms of organization possible besides hierarchy and chaos, including democratic control by the workers who elect the operational leadership. In some labor unions, leaders’ salaries are pegged to the median wage of the members. In University departments the chairmanship is often a rotating task that nobody really wants. When Argentine factory owners closed their plants during the recession, workers in fact seized control and ran them profitably despite police sieges.

    Darwinian behavior?

    Wilson argues that “social traits” evolved through Darwinian natural selection. Genes that promoted behaviors that helped the individual or group to survive were passed on; genes that weakened the individual or group were not. The tension between individual and group selection decided which traits would be part of our human nature.

    But a plausible claim that a trait might be good for people is not enough to explain its origin and survival. A gene may become fixed in a population even if it is harmful, just by the random genetic changes that we know occur. Or a gene may be harmful but be dragged along by an advantageous gene close to it on the same chromosome.

    Selection may act in different directions in different subpopulations, or in different habitats, or in differing environmental. Or the adaptive value of a gene may change with its prevalence or the distribution of ages in the population, itself a consequence of the environment and population heterogeneity.

    For instance, Afro-Americans have a higher death rate from cancer than Euro-Americans. In part this reflects the carcinogenic environments they have been subjected to, but there is also a genetic factor. It is the combination of living conditions and genetics that causes higher mortality rates.

    * * *

    Obviously I am not arguing that evolution doesn’t happen. The point is that we need a much better argument than just a claim that some genotype might be beneficial. And we need a much more rigorous understanding of the differences and linkages between the biological and social components of humanity’s nature. Just calling some social behavior a “trait” does not make it heritable.

    In a book that attempts such a wide-ranging panorama of human evolution, there are bound to be errors. But the errors in The Social Conquest of Earth form a pattern: they reduce social issues to biology, and they insist on our evolutionary continuity with other animals while ignoring the radical discontinuity that made us productivores and divided us into classes.

    Empathy more common in animals than thought (Science Daily)

    Date: January 21, 2016

    Source: American Association for the Advancement of Science

    Summary: A new study reveals that prairie voles console loved ones who are feeling stressed — and it appears that the infamous ‘love hormone,’ oxytocin, is the underlying mechanism.


    Prairie voles consoling. This material relates to a paper that appeared in the Jan. 22, 2016 issue of Science, published by AAAS. The paper, by James Burkett at Emory University in Atlanta, GA, and colleagues was titled, “Oxytocin-dependent consolation behavior in rodents.” Credit: Zack Johnson

    A new study reveals that prairie voles console loved ones who are feeling stressed — and it appears that the infamous “love hormone,” oxytocin, is the underlying mechanism. Until now, consolation behavior has only been documented in a few nonhuman species with high levels of sociality and cognition, such as elephants, dolphins and dogs.

    Prairie voles are particularly social rodents, causing them to be the focus of many studies. This led James Burkett and colleagues to explore their potential for empathy-motivated behaviors.

    The researchers created an experiment where relatives and known individuals were temporarily isolated from each other, while one was exposed to mild shocks. Upon reunion, the non-stressed prairie voles proceeded to lick the stressed voles sooner and for longer durations, compared to a control scenario where individuals were separated but neither was exposed to a stressor.

    Measurements of hormone levels revealed that the family members and friends were distressed when they could not comfort their loved one.

    The fact that consoling behavior occurred only between those who were familiar with each other — including non-kin members — but not strangers, demonstrates that the behavior is not simply a reaction to aversive cues, the authors note.

    Since the oxytocin receptor is associated with empathy in humans, Burkett et al. blocked this neurotransmitter in prairie voles in a series of similar consolation experiments. Blocking oxytocin did not cause family members and friends to alter their self-grooming behavior, yet they did cease consoling each other.

    These findings provide new insights into the mechanisms of empathy and the evolution of complex empathy-motivated behaviors.


    Journal Reference:

    1. J. P. Burkett, E. Andari, Z. V. Johnson, D. C. Curry, F. B. M. de Waal, L. J. Young. Oxytocin-dependent consolation behavior in rodentsScience, 2016; 351 (6271): 375 DOI: 10.1126/science.aac4785

    Cells talk to their neighbors before making a move (Science Daily)

    Comparing notes boosts cells sensing accuracy

    Date: January 21, 2016

    Source: Emory Health Sciences

    Summary: To decide whether and where to move in the body, cells must read chemical signals in their environment. Individual cells do not act alone during this process, two new studies on mouse mammary tissue show. Instead, the cells make decisions collectively after exchanging information about the chemical messages they are receiving.


    Like the telephone game — where a line of people whisper a message to the person next to them — an original message starts to become distorted as it travels down the line between cells, report scientists. (Stock image) Credit: © sakkmesterke / Fotolia

    To decide whether and where to move in the body, cells must read chemical signals in their environment. Individual cells do not act alone during this process, two new studies on mouse mammary tissue show. Instead, the cells make decisions collectively after exchanging information about the chemical messages they are receiving.

    “Cells talk to nearby cells and compare notes before they make a move,” says Ilya Nemenman, a theoretical biophysicist at Emory University and a co-author of both studies, published by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). The co-authors also include scientists from Johns Hopkins, Yale and Purdue.

    The researchers discovered that the cell communication process works similarly to a message relay in the telephone game. “Each cell only talks to its neighbor,” Nemenman explains. “A cell in position one only talks to a cell in position two. So position one needs to communicate with position two in order to get information from the cell in position three.”

    And like the telephone game — where a line of people whisper a message to the person next to them — the original message starts to become distorted as it travels down the line.

    The researchers found that, for the cells in their experiments, the message begins to get garbled after passing through about four cells, by a factor of about three.

    “We built a mathematical model for this linear relay of cellular information and derived a formula for its best possible accuracy,” Nemenman says. “Directed cell migration is important in processes from cancer to the development of organs and tissues. Other researchers can apply our model beyond the mouse mammary gland and analyze similar phenomena in a wide variety of healthy and diseased systems.”

    Since at least the 1970s, and pivotal work by Howard Berg and Ed Purcell, scientists have been trying to understand in detail how cells decide to take an action based on chemical cues.

    Every cell in a body has the same genome but they can do different things and go in different directions because they measure different chemical signals in their environment. Those chemical signals are made up of molecules that randomly move around.

    “Cells can sense not just the precise concentration of a chemical signal, but concentration differences,” Nemenman says. “That’s very important because in order to know which direction to move, a cell has to know in which direction the concentration of the chemical signal is higher. Cells sense this gradient and it gives them a reference for the direction in which to move and grow.”

    Berg and Purcell understood the best possible margin of error — the detection limit — for such gradient sensing. During the subsequent 30 years, researchers have established that many different cells, in many different organisms, work at this detection limit. Living cells can sense chemicals better than any humanmade device.

    It was not known, however, that cells can sense signals and make movement decisions collectively.

    “Previous research has typically focused on cultured cells,” Nemenman says. “And when you culture cells, the first thing to go away is cell-to-cell interaction. The cells are no longer a functioning tissue, but a culture of individual cells, so it’s difficult to study many collective effects.”

    The first PNAS paper drew from three-dimensional micro-fluidic techniques from the Yale University lab of Andre Levchenko, a biomedical engineer who studies how cells navigate; research on mouse mammary tissue at the Johns Hopkins lab of Andrew Ewald, a biologist focused on the cellular mechanisms of cancer; and the quantification methods of Nemenman, who studies the physics of biological systems, and Andrew Mugler, a former post-doctoral fellow in Nemenman’s lab at Emory who now has his own research group at Purdue.

    The 3D micro fluidics allowed the researchers to experiment with functional organoids, or clumps of cells. The method does not disrupt the interaction of the cells.

    The results showed that epidermal growth factor, or EGF, is the signal that these cells track, and that the cells were not making decisions about which way to move as individuals, but collectively.

    “The clumps of cells, working collectively, could detect insanely small differences in concentration gradients — such as 498 molecules of EGF versus 502 molecules — on different sides of one cell,” Nemenman says. “That accuracy is way better than the best possible margin of error determined by Berg and Purcell of about plus or minus 20. Even at these small concentration gradients, the organoids start reshaping and moving toward the higher concentration. These cells are not just optimal gradient detectors. They seem super optimal, defying the laws of nature.”

    Collective cell communication boosts their detection accuracy, turning a line of about four cells into a single, super-accurate measurement unit.

    In the second PNAS paper, Nemenman, Mugler and Levchenko looked at the limits to the cells’ precision of collective gradient sensing not just spatially, but over time.

    “We hypothesized that if the cells kept on communicating with one another over hours or days, and kept on accumulating information, that might expand the accuracy further than four cells across,” Nemenman says. “Surprisingly, however, this was not the case. We found that there is always a limit of how far information can travel without being garbled in these cellular systems.”

    Together, the two papers offer a detailed model for collective cellular gradient sensing, verified by experiments in mouse mammary organoids. The collective model expands the classic Berg-Purcell results for the best accuracy of an individual cell, which stood for almost forty years. The new formula quantifies the additional advantages and limitations on the accuracy coming from the cells working collectively.

    “Our findings are not just intellectually important. They provide new ways to study many normal and abnormal developmental processes,” Nemenman says.


    Journal References:

    1. David Ellison, Andrew Mugler, Matthew D. Brennan, Sung Hoon Lee, Robert J. Huebner, Eliah R. Shamir, Laura A. Woo, Joseph Kim, Patrick Amar, Ilya Nemenman, Andrew J. Ewald, and Andre Levchenko. Cell–cell communication enhances the capacity of cell ensembles to sense shallow gradients during morphogenesisPNAS, January 2016 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1516503113
    2. Andrew Mugler, Andre Levchenko, and Ilya Nemenman. Limits to the precision of gradient sensing with spatial communication and temporal integrationPNAS, January 2016 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1509597112

    Impact of human activity on local climate mapped (Science Daily)

    Date: January 20, 2016

    Source: Concordia University

    Summary: A new study pinpoints the temperature increases caused by carbon dioxide emissions in different regions around the world.


    This is a map of climate change. Credit: Nature Climate Change

    Earth’s temperature has increased by 1°C over the past century, and most of this warming has been caused by carbon dioxide emissions. But what does that mean locally?

    A new study published in Nature Climate Change pinpoints the temperature increases caused by CO2 emissions in different regions around the world.

    Using simulation results from 12 global climate models, Damon Matthews, a professor in Concordia’s Department of Geography, Planning and Environment, along with post-doctoral researcher Martin Leduc, produced a map that shows how the climate changes in response to cumulative carbon emissions around the world.

    They found that temperature increases in most parts of the world respond linearly to cumulative emissions.

    “This provides a simple and powerful link between total global emissions of carbon dioxide and local climate warming,” says Matthews. “This approach can be used to show how much human emissions are to blame for local changes.”

    Leduc and Matthews, along with co-author Ramon de Elia from Ouranos, a Montreal-based consortium on regional climatology, analyzed the results of simulations in which CO2 emissions caused the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere to increase by 1 per cent each year until it reached four times the levels recorded prior to the Industrial Revolution.

    Globally, the researchers saw an average temperature increase of 1.7 ±0.4°C per trillion tonnes of carbon in CO2 emissions (TtC), which is consistent with reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

    But the scientists went beyond these globally averaged temperature rises, to calculate climate change at a local scale.

    At a glance, here are the average increases per trillion tonnes of carbon that we emit, separated geographically:

    • Western North America 2.4 ± 0.6°C
    • Central North America 2.3 ± 0.4°C
    • Eastern North America 2.4 ± 0.5°C
    • Alaska 3.6 ± 1.4°C
    • Greenland and Northern Canada 3.1 ± 0.9°C
    • North Asia 3.1 ± 0.9°C
    • Southeast Asia 1.5 ± 0.3°C
    • Central America 1.8 ± 0.4°C
    • Eastern Africa 1.9 ± 0.4°C

    “As these numbers show, equatorial regions warm the slowest, while the Arctic warms the fastest. Of course, this is what we’ve already seen happen — rapid changes in the Arctic are outpacing the rest of the planet,” says Matthews.

    There are also marked differences between land and ocean, with the temperature increase for the oceans averaging 1.4 ± 0.3°C TtC, compared to 2.2 ± 0.5°C for land areas.

    “To date, humans have emitted almost 600 billion tonnes of carbon,” says Matthews. “This means that land areas on average have already warmed by 1.3°C because of these emissions. At current emission rates, we will have emitted enough CO¬2 to warm land areas by 2°C within 3 decades.”


    Journal Reference:

    1. Martin Leduc, H. Damon Matthews, Ramón de Elía. Regional estimates of the transient climate response to cumulative CO2 emissionsNature Climate Change, 2016; DOI: 10.1038/nclimate2913

    Social media technology, rather than anonymity, is the problem (Science Daily)

    Date: January 20, 2016

    Source: University of Kent

    Summary: Problems of anti-social behavior, privacy, and free speech on social media are not caused by anonymity but instead result from the way technology changes our presence. That’s the startling conclusion of a new book by an expert on the information society and developing media.


    Problems of anti-social behaviour, privacy, and free speech on social media are not caused by anonymity but instead result from the way technology changes our presence.

    That’s the startling conclusion of a new book by Dr Vincent Miller, a sociologist at the University of Kent and an expert on the information society and developing media.

    In contending that the cause of issues such as online anti-social behaviour is the design/software of social media itself, Dr Miller suggests that social media architecture needs to be managed and planned in the same way as physical architecture. In the book, entitled The Crisis of Presence in Contemporary Culture: Ethics, Privacy and Speech in Mediated Social Life, Dr Miller examines the relationship between the freedom provided by the contemporary online world and the control, surveillance and censorship that operate in this environment.

    The book questions the origins and sincerity of moral panics about use — and abuse — in the contemporary online environment and offers an analysis of ethics, privacy and free speech in this setting.

    Investigating the ethical challenges that confront our increasingly digital culture, Dr Miller suggests a number of revisions to our ethical, legal and technological regimes to meet these challenges.

    These including changing what he describes as ‘dehumanizing’ social media software, expanding the notion of our ‘selves’ or ‘bodies’ to include our digital traces, and the re-introduction of ‘time’ into social media through the creation of ‘expiry dates’ on social media communications.

    Dr Miller is a Senior Lecturer in Sociology and Cultural Studies within the University’s School of Social Research, Sociology and Social Policy. The Crisis of Presence in Contemporary Culture: Ethics, Privacy and Speech in Mediated Social Life, is published by Sage.

    More information can be found at: https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/the-crisis-of-presence-in-contemporary-culture/book244328

    The world’s greatest literature reveals multi fractals and cascades of consciousness (Science Daily)

    Date: January 21, 2016

    Source: The Henryk Niewodniczanski Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences

    Summary: James Joyce, Julio Cortazar, Marcel Proust, Henryk Sienkiewicz and Umberto Eco. Regardless of the language they were working in, some of the world’s greatest writers appear to be, in some respects, constructing fractals. Statistical analysis, however, revealed something even more intriguing. The composition of works from within a particular genre was characterized by the exceptional dynamics of a cascading (avalanche) narrative structure.


    Sequences of sentence lengths (as measured by number of words) in four literary works representative of various degree of cascading character. Credit: Source: IFJ PAN 

    James Joyce, Julio Cortazar, Marcel Proust, Henryk Sienkiewicz and Umberto Eco. Regardless of the language they were working in, some of the world’s greatest writers appear to be, in some respects, constructing fractals. Statistical analysis carried out at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, however, revealed something even more intriguing. The composition of works from within a particular genre was characterized by the exceptional dynamics of a cascading (avalanche) narrative structure. This type of narrative turns out to be multifractal. That is, fractals of fractals are created.

    As far as many bookworms are concerned, advanced equations and graphs are the last things which would hold their interest, but there’s no escape from the math. Physicists from the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IFJ PAN) in Cracow, Poland, performed a detailed statistical analysis of more than one hundred famous works of world literature, written in several languages and representing various literary genres. The books, tested for revealing correlations in variations of sentence length, proved to be governed by the dynamics of a cascade. This means that the construction of these books is in fact a fractal. In the case of several works their mathematical complexity proved to be exceptional, comparable to the structure of complex mathematical objects considered to be multifractal. Interestingly, in the analyzed pool of all the works, one genre turned out to be exceptionally multifractal in nature.

    Fractals are self-similar mathematical objects: when we begin to expand one fragment or another, what eventually emerges is a structure that resembles the original object. Typical fractals, especially those widely known as the Sierpinski triangle and the Mandelbrot set, are monofractals, meaning that the pace of enlargement in any place of a fractal is the same, linear: if they at some point were rescaled x number of times to reveal a structure similar to the original, the same increase in another place would also reveal a similar structure.

    Multifractals are more highly advanced mathematical structures: fractals of fractals. They arise from fractals ‘interwoven’ with each other in an appropriate manner and in appropriate proportions. Multifractals are not simply the sum of fractals and cannot be divided to return back to their original components, because the way they weave is fractal in nature. The result is that in order to see a structure similar to the original, different portions of a multifractal need to expand at different rates. A multifractal is therefore non-linear in nature.

    “Analyses on multiple scales, carried out using fractals, allow us to neatly grasp information on correlations among data at various levels of complexity of tested systems. As a result, they point to the hierarchical organization of phenomena and structures found in nature. So we can expect natural language, which represents a major evolutionary leap of the natural world, to show such correlations as well. Their existence in literary works, however, had not yet been convincingly documented. Meanwhile, it turned out that when you look at these works from the proper perspective, these correlations appear to be not only common, but in some works they take on a particularly sophisticated mathematical complexity,” says Prof. Stanislaw Drozdz (IFJ PAN, Cracow University of Technology).

    The study involved 113 literary works written in English, French, German, Italian, Polish, Russian and Spanish by such famous figures as Honore de Balzac, Arthur Conan Doyle, Julio Cortazar, Charles Dickens, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Alexandre Dumas, Umberto Eco, George Elliot, Victor Hugo, James Joyce, Thomas Mann, Marcel Proust, Wladyslaw Reymont, William Shakespeare, Henryk Sienkiewicz, JRR Tolkien, Leo Tolstoy and Virginia Woolf, among others. The selected works were no less than 5,000 sentences long, in order to ensure statistical reliability.

    To convert the texts to numerical sequences, sentence length was measured by the number of words (an alternative method of counting characters in the sentence turned out to have no major impact on the conclusions). The dependences were then searched for in the data — beginning with the simplest, i.e. linear. This is the posited question: if a sentence of a given length is x times longer than the sentences of different lengths, is the same aspect ratio preserved when looking at sentences respectively longer or shorter?

    “All of the examined works showed self-similarity in terms of organization of the lengths of sentences. Some were more expressive — here The Ambassadors by Henry James stood out — while others to far less of an extreme, as in the case of the French seventeenth-century romance Artamene ou le Grand Cyrus. However, correlations were evident, and therefore these texts were the construction of a fractal,” comments Dr. Pawel Oswiecimka (IFJ PAN), who also noted that fractality of a literary text will in practice never be as perfect as in the world of mathematics. It is possible to magnify mathematical fractals up to infinity, while the number of sentences in each book is finite, and at a certain stage of scaling there will always be a cut-off in the form of the end of the dataset.

    Things took a particularly interesting turn when physicists from the IFJ PAN began tracking non-linear dependence, which in most of the studied works was present to a slight or moderate degree. However, more than a dozen works revealed a very clear multifractal structure, and almost all of these proved to be representative of one genre, that of stream of consciousness. The only exception was the Bible, specifically the Old Testament, which has so far never been associated with this literary genre.

    “The absolute record in terms of multifractality turned out to be Finnegan’s Wake by James Joyce. The results of our analysis of this text are virtually indistinguishable from ideal, purely mathematical multifractals,” says Prof. Drozdz.

    The most multifractal works also included A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius by Dave Eggers, Rayuela by Julio Cortazar, The US Trilogy by John Dos Passos, The Waves by Virginia Woolf, 2666 by Roberto Bolano, and Joyce’s Ulysses. At the same time a lot of works usually regarded as stream of consciousness turned out to show little correlation to multifractality, as it was hardly noticeable in books such as Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand and A la recherche du temps perdu by Marcel Proust.

    “It is not entirely clear whether stream of consciousness writing actually reveals the deeper qualities of our consciousness, or rather the imagination of the writers. It is hardly surprising that ascribing a work to a particular genre is, for whatever reason, sometimes subjective. We see, moreover, the possibility of an interesting application of our methodology: it may someday help in a more objective assignment of books to one genre or another,” notes Prof. Drozdz.

    Multifractal analyses of literary texts carried out by the IFJ PAN have been published in Information Sciences, a journal of computer science. The publication has undergone rigorous verification: given the interdisciplinary nature of the subject, editors immediately appointed up to six reviewers.


    Journal Reference:

    1. Stanisław Drożdż, Paweł Oświȩcimka, Andrzej Kulig, Jarosław Kwapień, Katarzyna Bazarnik, Iwona Grabska-Gradzińska, Jan Rybicki, Marek Stanuszek. Quantifying origin and character of long-range correlations in narrative textsInformation Sciences, 2016; 331: 32 DOI: 10.1016/j.ins.2015.10.023

    Gangbusters: How the Upsurge in Anti-Gang Tactics Will Hurt Communities of Color (Truthout)

    Tuesday, 19 January 2016 00:00 By Josmar Trujillo, Truthout | News Analysis 

    Shanice Farrar wants to honor her son and stop violence in her neighborhood. (Photo: Lyssy Pastrana)Bronx activist Shanice Farrar wants to honor her son, who was killed by police, and stop violence in her neighborhood. (Photo: Lyssy Pastrana)

    Dozens of alleged gang members were arrested in December when police raids swept through public housing developments in the Bronx, following similar raids in September and July of 2015. A December multipart Daily News special investigation, packaged behind a “Gangs of New York” front-page cover, reported on the prevalence of gangs throughout New York City, even publishing a map detailing alleged “ganglands.” New York City Police Department (NYPD) Commissioner Bill Bratton, in an op-ed published in the same edition, called the gang activity “violence for its own sake.”

    As arrests and indictments pile up to form a media narrative of senseless violence and seemingly irredeemable youth, there are public housing and criminal justice reform advocates who want a different approach. They say that poverty is the underlying root cause of violence – one that cops and gang raids cannot solve.

    Shanice Farrar, 42, is the mother of Shaaliver Douse, a teenager killed by cops in 2013 while, police say, he was chasing and shooting at another young man. Farrar is a single mother who has worked as a fire guard (someone who patrols areas lacking functioning fire protection systems) for almost eight years, at times working in the same Bronx public housing development, the Morris Houses, where she and her son lived. She always had dual concerns for Shaalie, as his friends called him: the neighborhood violence and the police who harassed him. She vividly remembers the night he didn’t come home. After calling and texting Shaalie’s phone all night, Farrar woke up on the morning of August 4, 2013, to the sounds of cops banging on her door. NYPD detectives told Farrar that her son had been killed in a shoot-out with police. They said Shaalie was shot in the face after ignoring orders to drop a gun.

    Ray Kelly, the NYPD police commissioner at the time, said that Shaalie’s death was justified. Police said they had surveillance footage of him running with a gun. But footage released by the NYPD is incomplete. Images show a young man in a white shirt, purportedly Shaalie, chasing someone around a corner on 151st Street in the Melrose section of the Bronx. The confrontation with cops, where police claim he was told to drop the gun, isn’t seen. Farrar says she’s been denied access to other video angles, as well as the names of the rookie cops who shot her son.

    Shaalie’s name and reputation were scrutinized immediately following his death. The newspapers’ presentation of his past arrests as an affirmation of his criminality weren’t fair to him or his family, Farrar says. The New York Daily News described Shaalie as a young man with a “growing rap sheet” and a follow-up story used unnamed sources to claim that Shaalie was, in fact, in a gang. Criminal charges her son was facing were bogus, Farrar insists. In 2012, Shaalie, then 13, was charged with attempted murder. Shaalie told his mom that he’d in fact been robbed at gunpoint by some boys from another housing complex. When cops showed up, everyone ran. Cops caught Shaalie, who didn’t want to cooperate. They told him that if he didn’t tell them whose gun it was, they’d pin the gun, which they found abandoned in some nearby grass, on him. Attempted murder charges were dropped to weapons possession charges when witnesses recanted. After several court dates, the judge in the case suggested that the whole case would soon be thrown out, Farrar says.

    New York’s Turn Toward Gang Conspiracy Charges

    Building criminal cases and indicting young men with gang conspiracy charges is quickly becoming a favored law enforcement approach in New York – one that’s getting more sophisticated. The NYPD and some of the city’s top prosecutors are targeting mostly young men, usually those living in public housing, with a blend of modern surveillance and conspiracy charges developed in the 1970s to take down the mafia. Raids are usually the final leg of the NYPD’s Operation Crew Cut, a police tactic that targets “crews” – a looser grouping of young people often compared to gangs – by building criminal cases often off of what is obtained from their online activity. Manhattan District Attorney Cyrus Vance’s office has been involved in gang raids in East Harlem, indicting 63 men in 2013, and West Harlem, indicting 103 in 2014 – the city’s largest raid ever. Bronx District Attorney Robert Johnson launched several smaller raids in the Bronx in 2015.

    If attempts to get young people to turn away from violence can be described as either carrot or stick approaches, then Operation Ceasefire, a law enforcement initiative based largely on the work of John Jay College’s David Kennedy, is said to offer some carrots. With the help of Susan Herman, a former Pace University professor turned NYPD deputy commissioner, Kennedy’s ideas have gained traction at the police department under Bratton. Herman’s husband, John Jay College president Jeremy Travis, works with Kennedy and used to work for Bratton in the 1990s. With a nearly $5 million grant from the Department of Justice and early influence on the president’s national police reform agenda, Kennedy is one of the most in-demand criminal justice minds in the country.

    Like Crew Cut, Ceasefire focuses on a small amount of alleged perpetrators, said to be responsible for a large portion of shootings and murders. This so-called “focused-deterrence” strategy also claims to offer pathways away from violence for suspected perpetrators as cops and community figures partner to dissuade young people from violence. A similar NYPD program focused on robberies, the Juvenile Robbery Intervention Program (J-RIP), has, even by police accounts, shown no effect. The Ceasefire model, perhaps, can differ from city to city. In New York, the chief of department sat down with alleged gang members, mandated to attend through parole agreements, to eat pizza and inform them that they’re being watched. In other cases, cops simply keep close tabs on who they say are the city’s most likely killers, busting them for small infractions like jaywalking. In the 12 precincts where Ceasefire is being formally implemented, shootings are down, but murders are up.

    While Ceasefire ostensibly offers a multilayer approach, described by Bratton as a mix between “intensive enforcement” and “genuine offers of assistance,” there is a clear emphasis on the enforcement side as police efforts “pretty much hang a sword over (gang members’) heads.”

    “Look, if you or your gang is involved in violent activities then we’re all going to come after you. It’s not just going to be local authorities but the feds and we’ll try to get you every which way we can,” Bratton warned. “When we get them convicted, we get them shipped off to federal prisons so they’re not going to be able to hang out with all their buddies up in the state prisons.”

    Criticisms of the Ceasefire Approach to Policing

    Alex Vitale, an associate professor of sociology at Brooklyn College, says that some of the city’s efforts to fight violence seem “contradictory” and make little sense. “On the one hand, we’ve seen small increases in the amount of money being devoted to community-based violence reduction efforts in the form of peer violence interrupters and increased services for high-risk youth,” he told Truthout. “On the other hand, the city has invested heavily in new policing strategies that rely on intensive punitive enforcement measures targeting these same populations of young people.” Vitale believes that the law enforcement approach can “actually disrupt the efforts of community-based groups to encourage young people off the streets and into school and employment.”

    Programs like Crew Cut and Ceasefire “rely on threats and punishment” and often “run counter to the efforts to reduce youth crime,” Vitale said. He thinks violence intervention work and community-based peer violence mediation offer much more promising alternatives without hinging on police raids or lengthy prison sentences. “Intensive policing undermines those efforts and destabilizes the relationships they are building with these young people,” he added. Wraparound social services, and not gang raids, should be the focus, Vitale says, because poor communities “need more access to real resources that can provide these young people real avenues out of poverty and despair.”

    Shaaliver Douce was killed a few yards from his high school. (Photo: Lyssy Pastrana)Shaaliver Douce was killed a few yards from his high school. (Photo: Lyssy Pastrana)

    Lessons From New Orleans

    Ethan Brown is a licensed investigator in Louisiana. He works on the defense side of drug cases in New Orleans and moved there from New York in 2007. Brown is a critic of Ceasefire and of Kennedy, whom he describes as “this generation’s George Kelling” (a prominent criminologist who is credited with developing the “broken windows” theory of policing). Brown says New Orleans’ supposed success with its own Ceasefire-style efforts, which it launched in 2012, isn’t necessarily backed up by the numbers. Post-Katrina New Orleans has been the murder capital of the United States almost every year. It had the highest murder rate for a US city every year between 2000 and 2011, except for 2005. Brown says that despite dedicating tremendous police resources to fight violence, the city has only seen a modest reduction in the murder rate.

    New Orleans offers an interesting test case, since the city has also employed a historically abusive police force – creating a barrier between police and the community with which they’re supposed to collaborate. In 2012, the New Orleans Police Department (NOPD) was placed under a federal consent decree after authorities described the police there as “lawless.” Federal investigations had gone back to the 1990s, but the monitoring program was an overt acknowledgement that the department could not reform itself.

    The stories were the stuff of nightmares. Henry Glover was killed by cops in 2005, a few days after Hurricane Katrina struck. His body was found shot and burned inside a car, the fire used as a cover-up by police officers. The infamous Danziger Bridge incident, where NOPD cops shot six people, killing two, and lied that they had been shot at, invited national outrage. There was also the tale of Melvin “Flattop” Williams, the infamously aggressive Black cop ultimately convicted of killing an unarmed man in 2012, fracturing his ribs and rupturing his spleen.

    In 2010, a new mayor, Democrat Mitch Landrieu, became the first white mayor of New Orleans since 1978, when Moon Landrieu, his father, ran the city. Landrieu’s administration brought with it promises of police reform and a new police chief, Ronal Serpas. While Serpas was expected to deal with the controversial misconduct and killings at the NOPD, he instead sought to tackle the murder rate. In 2012, he and Landrieu brought in Kennedy to help form “NOLA for Life,” an anti-violence initiative built largely on the Ceasefire model. Reductions in the murder rate seemed promising, falling in 2013 and 2014. However, the murder rate rose again in 2015. And, in fact, murders had already begun to fall from 2011 to 2012, before NOLA for Life. Other cities, like Los Angeles, have seen similarly mixed results. Boston, where Ceasefire originated, initially had big drops in murders, but saw those numbers climb again as the model proved unsustainable.

    While NOLA for Life promotes an inspiring array of “carrots,” like job postings and mentoring, the law enforcement “stick” was more like a “bazooka” in New Orleans, according to Brown. “Since 2012, there’ve been an extraordinary number of gang indictments. The sentences that people face are immense, like ones you’d give to drug cartels,” he told Truthout. Brown also thinks that police and prosecutors are casting too wide a net when gangs are targeted.

    “The notion of a ‘crew’ or ‘gang’ affiliation is spread so wide, the definition becomes completely elastic,” he said. In this regard, Brown sees business as usual. “[Ceasefire] is presented as some radically new law enforcement approach … but actually, particularly at the federal level, these things have been going on for decades,” he said. And the “carrot” side of the equation? “The cure is unspecified social services that no one has been able to figure out.”

    More Sticks Than Carrots

    A 2007 Justice Policy Institute report by Judith Greene and Kevin Pranis found not only that the Ceasefire model failed to deliver on some of its violence-reducing claims, but also that the “carrot” side of the model “always lagged behind the suppression side,” or the “stick.” Greene and Pranis criticized the broader gang enforcement tactics that operate on the suppression end as “ineffectual, if not counterproductive.” Specifically, the report points to efforts of police to intensely target gang “leaders” as problematic because destabilizing gangs, which can produce new leaders, can also risk more violence.

    Resources spent on gang suppression include money spent on arrests, prosecutions and jail terms. Neighborhood costs include young people being carted off to jail for things they may or may not have done, or simply said they might do, and serving long sentences in prisons – where gangs thrive – only to come home in as bleak a situation as they went in. More importantly, however, is that the police-community partnership narrative that Ceasefire promotes hinges on a questionable equivalency of power between police and community, which can affect how resources are divvied up. Public and private funding made available for social services, or “carrots,” will likely go to groups with established, deferential relationships with law enforcement. In other words, law enforcement is always in control.

    Benny, 31, grew up in the Morris Houses in the Bronx. He says the hunt for gangs is unfair to people who live in the community and grow up together, especially young men. “Black lives do matter. When you grow up in a neighborhood like this, they judge you. You see this group right here,” he said, pointing to a group of men and women hanging out on nearby benches. “They’ll consider this like gang activity, even though all we did was grow up together. Next thing you know they’ll be hitting you with conspiracy [charges].” On an unusually warm Friday afternoon in December, people are sitting around on park benches. People of all ages, from teenage boys to older women pushing shopping carts, stop to talk and laugh.

    “They’re taking my friends and they’re not helping,” a young woman named Daisy said about police. Daisy, 19, was Shaalie’s friend. She mourned not only Shaalie’s death, but also that of Jujuan Carson, a 19-year-old friend of hers and Shaalie’s who was just killed in November 2015. “They still haven’t found the person who killed Jujuan, but yet they indicted his friends the day before his funeral,” she said angrily. Daisy says she doesn’t trust police. “Whatever comes out of their mouths are lies.”

    Jumping to Conclusions About Gang Activity

    The Morris Houses stretch down the east side of the Metro North railroad, which runs along Park Avenue, separating them from the Butler and Morris senior houses on the other side. The New York Daily News’ gang map lists “Washside” as an active gang based in the Morris Houses. Farrar objects to that label. “Washside” is the name some Morris kids identify with, but isn’t an actual gang, she says. While she doesn’t deny gun violence, she vividly remembers how her son was characterized as a gang member for all sorts of reasons. If he posted a picture of himself pointing to a new pair of sneakers or holding a new belt, people would say that those were gang hand signs. “Shaalie’s World,” the words on shirts and sweaters Farrar made after Shaalie’s death, is now rumored to be a gang.

    Shaalie’s friends often make tributes to him in songs and on social media. Farrar worries that law enforcement may be deliberately conflating a song, tweet or Instagram post with a sign of gang activity. Amateur music videos that mention Shaalie or refer to “Washside” are probably being collected as cops and prosecutors build cases on more young men, she suspects. In 2015, a Brooklyn man was sentenced to 12 life sentences for a string of murders after prosecutors used rap lyrics of songs he posted on YouTube against him.

    “I feel it’s like a cycle. That’s how I feel. It’s like this shit is designed for you to either end up dead or in jail,” Benny said as he tested out his new remote-controlled helicopter. “Right now, my little brother got 10 years for conspiracy,” he said. “It’s guilt by association, who you hang with.” Benny knows police are surveilling them, using all of the New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA) and NYPD cameras posted around the neighborhood. “I could be chillin’ with you, you makin’ money, but you been my man since we was kids, and now they taking pictures of us. Let me walk out here with a hoodie tonight and watch me get stopped five times.” Farrar quickly jumps in to recall how Shaalie started wearing hoodies after the death of Trayvon Martin, the Florida boy killed by a neighborhood vigilante. “They really killed him because he was wearing a hoodie, ma?” she recalled him asking.

    The Morris Houses are the targets of national gang enforcement trend. (Photo: Lyssy Pastrana)The Morris Houses are the targets of a national gang enforcement trend. (Photo: Lyssy Pastrana)

    Farrar, like many of her neighbors, is distrustful of the police and of these new efforts to target alleged gang members. Sitting at some park benches near her building on Washington Avenue, about a mile from where Shaalie died, she and her friends talk about the neighborhood and both the violence and poverty that plague it. For them, poverty is inextricable from the violence – which is something police can’t solve.

    “The Kids Need Somewhere to Play”

    While Farrar will be the first to agree that youth violence is a problem, the neighborhood’s antagonistic relationship with cops puts them between a rock and a hard place. It was the police, she says, who locked up the basketball courts for two months during the summer. She points at the fence, describing how people were forced to cut and crawl through openings just to play basketball. If cops locked up the courts to prevent violence, then they failed to do even that, some say. A man walks over and says closing the park “wasn’t the solution.” “Now you make it worse,” said the man, who didn’t want to be identified. “Now they got nothin’ to do. Now all they gon’ do is fight now.”

    “The kids need somewhere to play,” said Dee, a 35-year-old trainer and boxer who used to train Shaalie. He wants the younger generation to come off of the street and stop fighting with each other, but he says they need resources. He recalls block parties when he was younger that have since become too few and far between. The city-funded health tables and community programming nowadays are directed at very young children and the elderly, not the teens and young adults most susceptible to violence. Worse yet is that programs are limited in scope and time: “They go from like 10 [am] to 12 [pm] and that’s it,” Dee said.

    Ms. Betty is 58 and has raised three boys in the Morris Houses. “They’ve got nothing for them to do, that’s our problem. If they find something to do, maybe they’ll stop fighting each other,” she said. For her, the lack of fully functioning community centers contributes to the violence. “It doesn’t make sense. Families got to be crying over their kids and kids fighting for no reason.” While she feels that police are needed, she’s taken aback at the way cops crack down on many in the neighborhood just for hanging out around the buildings. “We just want to be out here like normal people,” she said. She recalls playgrounds inexplicably closed and benches removed from the front of buildings. Asked about the city’s efforts to lease some NYCHA property for private development, she says what the neighborhood needs is an expanded community center. “That don’t make no sense. And they know that.”

    Once a basketball court, an empty lot sits in the Morris Houses development. (Photo: Lyssy Pastrana)

    Once a basketball court, an empty lot sits in the Morris Houses development. (Photo: Lyssy Pastrana)

    “I gave my son a lot of attention. But my son was the child of a single parent who felt his mother, you know, was struggling too hard,” Farrar told Truthout. Asked about the Black Lives Matter movement, Farrar is supportive of marches and protests in response to police killings, but she’s also painfully aware of the fact that many may not jump to stand behind her son’s life because of the questions around his case. Shaalie’s funeral was attended by Constance Malcolm and Frank Graham, the parents of Ramarley Graham, a young man fatally shot by cops who chased him into his grandmother’s house. However, few others in the anti-police brutality movement have made her pain their pain. Asked about the future of the movement, Farrar wants the scope to extend beyond cops. “I’d like Black Lives Matter to help the community come together, do things for kids, help stop the beefing,” Farrar said.

    During a march that Farrar and her friends put together a few years back in memory of Shaalie, some of his friends began to chant “Fuck the police, RIP Shaalie” to the cops walking alongside. These were Shaalie’s friends, all from the surrounding buildings. Farrar pulled out her camera phone and kept watch of the cops as the march continued to the spot Shaalie died. The group, too large for the sidewalk, formed a big circle. A police car pulled up and a cop insisted the event clear out because it was blocking the road. Farrar told them they wouldn’t be going anywhere until they were done. They released white balloons into the sky and promised never to forget Shaalie’s name.

    Josmar Trujillo is an activist and organizer with New Yorkers Against Bratton. Follow him on Twitter: @Josmar_Trujillo.

    Pesquisadoras mapeiam ocupação indígena no Sertão nordestino desde século 16 (Diário de Pernambuco)

    Considerados nômades, índios que viviam mais ao oeste do Brasil são pouco estudados se comparados aqueles da região litorânea e da Zona da Mata

    Por: Fellipe Torres – Diario de Pernambuco

    Publicado em: 19/01/2016 17:53 Atualizado em: 19/01/2016 19:22

    A obra revela como o Sertão era habitado pelos índios, considerados nômades pelo fato de precisarem de todo o espaço necessário para sobreviver à ocupação violenta dos colonizadores brancos. Crédito: Arquivo/DP
    A obra revela como o Sertão era habitado pelos índios, considerados nômades pelo fato de precisarem de todo o espaço necessário para sobreviver à ocupação violenta dos colonizadores brancos. Crédito: Arquivo/DP

    A escassez de informações sobre o passado histórico do Sertão nordestino abre espaço para a reprodução de preconceitos com séculos de existência. Um conhecido mapa criado no século 16 pelo cartógrafo espanhol Diego Gutiérrez, por exemplo, generaliza a população sertaneja da época a índios canibais, representados em ilustrações de esquartejamento e assado humano. Para dar contornos mais claros à história brasileira, em especial referente ao território pernambucano mais ao oeste do país, duas gerações se uniram em um vasto estudo, agora disponível em livro. Mãe e filha, as historiadoras Socorro Ferraz e Bartira Ferraz Barbosa lançam, nesta quarta-feira (20), às 19h, na Arte Plural Galeria (Rua da Moeda, 140, Bairro do Recife), Sertão – Fronteira do medo (Editora UFPE, 283 páginas, R$ 75).

    Crédito: Editora UFPE/divulgação
    Crédito: Editora UFPE/divulgação

    Na publicação, o Sertão dos tempos coloniais é descrito como uma fronteira física e, ao mesmo tempo, imaginária para a população do litoral. Era, portanto, representada graficamente pelos colonizadores, interessados em conquistar terras e riquezas em um local com características peculiares. “Há muitos trabalhos sobre a ocupação indígena litorânea e da Zona da Mata, mas muito poucas a respeito do Sertão, uma região onde a sobrevivência é mais difícil e, portanto, as informações não são tão fáceis de serem obtidas. Foi uma grande surpresa encontrar nos cartórios pesquisados livros de batismo de índios, negros e escravos brancos, com dados sobre como se batizava na época, sobre relações de parentesco, posse das terras”, relata Socorro Ferraz, doutora em história econômica pela Universidade de São Paulo e professora da UFPE.

    Segundo a pesquisadora, a obra revela como o Sertão era habitado pelos índios, considerados nômades pelo fato de precisarem de todo o espaço necessário para sobreviver à ocupação violenta dos brancos. Esses colonizadores, ela esclarece, impingiram o medo para que a população indígena cedesse em muitos aspectos. Boa parte dela cedeu, negociou, tentou sobreviver de toda forma possível. Grande parte, contudo, foi extinta. Nesse contexto de adaptação, alguns índios chegaram, inclusive, a ter presença ativa no sistema colonial. Alguns foram capitães de milícias, outros tiveram cargos políticos, militares, serviram de intermediários para a própria conquista.
    Para Bartira Ferraz, desde o século 16 os portugueses impuseram uma nova ordem política baseada em mecanismo de ocupação e controle, do vigiar e punir. “Os colonizadores vão primeiro punir, taxando os indígenas de selvagens, canibais, instalando um caos, que dá origem a guerras coloniais. Ocorreu a implantação brutal do sistema político por meio de um controle feito pela cruz e pela espada, com apoio do missionário e de tropas que controlavam essas populações”.

    The One Weird Trait That Predicts Whether You’re a Trump Supporter (Politico Magazine)

    And it’s not gender, age, income, race or religion.

    1/17/2016

     

    If I asked you what most defines Donald Trump supporters, what would you say? They’re white? They’re poor? They’re uneducated?

    You’d be wrong.

    In fact, I’ve found a single statistically significant variable predicts whether a voter supports Trump—and it’s not race, income or education levels: It’s authoritarianism.

    That’s right, Trump’s electoral strength—and his staying power—have been buoyed, above all, by Americans with authoritarian inclinations. And because of the prevalence of authoritarians in the American electorate, among Democrats as well as Republicans, it’s very possible that Trump’s fan base will continue to grow.

    My finding is the result of a national poll I conducted in the last five days of December under the auspices of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, sampling 1,800 registered voters across the country and the political spectrum. Running a standard statistical analysis, I found that education, income, gender, age, ideology and religiosity had no significant bearing on a Republican voter’s preferred candidate. Only two of the variables I looked at were statistically significant: authoritarianism, followed by fear of terrorism, though the former was far more significant than the latter.

    Authoritarianism is not a new, untested concept in the American electorate. Since the rise of Nazi Germany, it has been one of the most widely studied ideas in social science. While its causes are still debated, the political behavior of authoritarians is not. Authoritarians obey. They rally to and follow strong leaders. And they respond aggressively to outsiders, especially when they feel threatened. From pledging to “make America great again” by building a wall on the border to promising to close mosques and ban Muslims from visiting the United States, Trump is playing directly to authoritarian inclinations.

    Not all authoritarians are Republicans by any means; in national surveys since 1992, many authoritarians have also self-identified as independents and Democrats. And in the 2008 Democratic primary, the political scientist Marc Hetherington found that authoritarianism mattered more than income, ideology, gender, age and education in predicting whether voters preferred Hillary Clinton over Barack Obama. But Hetherington has also found, based on 14 years of polling, that authoritarians have steadily moved from the Democratic to the Republican Party over time. He hypothesizes that the trend began decades ago, as Democrats embraced civil rights, gay rights, employment protections and other political positions valuing freedom and equality. In my poll results, authoritarianism was not a statistically significant factor in the Democratic primary race, at least not so far, but it does appear to be playing an important role on the Republican side. Indeed, 49 percent of likely Republican primary voters I surveyed score in the top quarter of the authoritarian scale—more than twice as many as Democratic voters.

    Political pollsters have missed this key component of Trump’s support because they simply don’t include questions about authoritarianism in their polls. In addition to the typical battery of demographic, horse race, thermometer-scale and policy questions, my poll asked a set of four simple survey questions that political scientists have employed since 1992 to measure inclination toward authoritarianism. These questions pertain to child-rearing: whether it is more important for the voter to have a child who is respectful or independent; obedient or self-reliant; well-behaved or considerate; and well-mannered or curious. Respondents who pick the first option in each of these questions are strongly authoritarian.

    Based on these questions, Trump was the only candidate—Republican or Democrat—whose support among authoritarians was statistically significant.

    So what does this mean for the election? It doesn’t just help us understand what motivates Trump’s backers—it suggests that his support isn’t capped. In a statistical analysis of the polling results, I found that Trump has already captured 43 percent of Republican primary voters who are strong authoritarians, and 37 percent of Republican authoritarians overall. A majority of Republican authoritarians in my poll also strongly supported Trump’s proposals to deport 11 million illegal immigrants, prohibit Muslims from entering the United States, shutter mosques and establish a nationwide database that track Muslims.

    And in a general election, Trump’s strongman rhetoric will surely appeal to some of the 39 percent of independents in my poll who identify as authoritarians and the 17 percent of self-identified Democrats who are strong authoritarians.

    What’s more, the number of Americans worried about the threat of terrorism is growing. In 2011, Hetherington published research finding that non-authoritarians respond to the perception of threat by behaving more like authoritarians. More fear and more threats—of the kind we’ve seen recently in the San Bernardino and Paris terrorist attacks—mean more voters are susceptible to Trump’s message about protecting Americans. In my survey, 52 percent of those voters expressing the most fear that another terrorist attack will occur in the United States in the next 12 months were non-authoritarians—ripe targets for Trump’s message.

    Take activated authoritarians from across the partisan spectrum and the growing cadre of threatened non-authoritarians, then add them to the base of Republican general election voters, and the potential electoral path to a Trump presidency becomes clearer.

    So, those who say a Trump presidency “can’t happen here” should check their conventional wisdom at the door. The candidate has confounded conventional expectations this primary season because those expectations are based on an oversimplified caricature of the electorate in general and his supporters in particular. Conditions are ripe for an authoritarian leader to emerge. Trump is seizing the opportunity. And the institutions—from the Republican Party to the press—that are supposed to guard against what James Madison called “the infection of violent passions” among the people have either been cowed by Trump’s bluster or are asleep on the job.

    It is time for those who would appeal to our better angels to take his insurgency seriously and stop dismissing his supporters as a small band of the dispossessed. Trump support is firmly rooted in American authoritarianism and, once awakened, it is a force to be reckoned with. That means it’s also time for political pollsters to take authoritarianism seriously and begin measuring it in their polls.

    Matthew MacWilliams is founder of MacWilliams Sanders, a political communications firms, and a Ph.D. candidate in political science at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, where he is writing his dissertation about authoritarianism.

    Read more: http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/01/donald-trump-2016-authoritarian-213533#ixzz3xj06TM2n

    The Big Search to Find Out Where Dogs Come From (New York Times)

    An ancient canine skull at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. Scientists are still debating exactly when and where the ancient human-canine bond originated. ANDREW TESTA FOR THE NEW YORK TIMES

    By JAMES GORMAN

    OXFORD, England — Before humans milked cows, herded goats or raised hogs, before they invented agriculture, or written language, before they had permanent homes, and most certainly before they had cats, they had dogs.

    Or dogs had them, depending on how you view the human-canine arrangement. But scientists are still debating exactly when and where the ancient bond originated. And a large new study being run out of the University of Oxford here, with collaborators around the world, may soon provide some answers.

    Scientists have come up with a broad picture of the origins of dogs. First off, researchers agree that they evolved from ancient wolves. Scientists once thought that some visionary hunter-gatherer nabbed a wolf puppy from its den one day and started raising tamer and tamer wolves, taking the first steps on the long road to leashes and flea collars. This is oversimplified, of course, but the essence of the idea is that people actively bred wolves to become dogs just the way they now breed dogs to be tiny or large, or to herd sheep.

    The prevailing scientific opinion now, however, is that this origin story does not pass muster. Wolves are hard to tame, even as puppies, and many researchers find it much more plausible that dogs, in effect, invented themselves.

    Arden Hulme-Beaman cutting a piece from an ancient skull for DNA testing at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels. ANDREW TESTA FOR THE NEW YORK TIMES

    One reason for the conflicting theories, according to Greger Larson, a biologist in the archaeology department at the University of Oxford, is that dog genetics are a mess. In an interview at his office here in November, he noted that most dog breeds were invented in the 19th century during a period of dog obsession that he called “the giant whirlwind blender of the European crazy Victorian dog-breeding frenzy.”

    That blender, as well as random breeding by dogs themselves, and interbreeding with wolves at different times over at least the last 15,000 years, created a “tomato soup” of dog genetics, for which the ingredients are very hard to identify, Dr. Larson said.

    The way to find the recipe, Dr. Larson is convinced, is to create a large database of ancient DNA to add to the soup of modern canine genetics. And with a colleague, Keith Dobney at the University of Aberdeen, he has persuaded the Who’s Who of dog researchers to join a broad project, with about $2.5 million in funding from the Natural Environment Research Council in England and the European Research Council, to analyze ancient bones and their DNA.

    Robert Wayne, an evolutionary biologist at U.C.L.A. who studies the origin of dogs and is part of the research, said, “There’s hardly a person working in canine genetics that’s not working on that project.”

    A wolf on display at the Oxford Museum of Natural History. ANDREW TESTA FOR THE NEW YORK TIMES

    That is something of a triumph, given the many competing theories in this field. “Almost every group has a different origination hypothesis,” he said.

    But Dr. Larson has sold them all on the simple notion that the more data they have, the more cooperative the effort is, the better the answers are going to be. His personality has been crucial to promoting the team effort, said Dr. Wayne, who described Dr. Larson as “very outgoing, gregarious.” Also, Dr. Wayne added, “He has managed not to alienate anyone.”

    Scientists at museums and universities who are part of the project are opening up their collections. So to gather data, Dr. Larson and his team at Oxford have traveled the world, collecting tiny samples of bone and measurements of teeth, jaws and occasionally nearly complete skulls from old and recent dogs, wolves and canids that could fall into either category. The collection phase is almost done, said Dr. Larson, who expects to end up with DNA from about 1,500 samples, and photographs and detailed measurements of several thousand.

    Scientific papers will start to emerge this year from the work, some originating in Oxford, and some from other institutions, all the work of many collaborators.

    Dr. Larson is gambling that the project will be able to determine whether the domestication process occurred closer to 15,000 or 30,000 years ago, and in what region it took place. That’s not quite the date, GPS location and name of the ancient hunter that some dog lovers might hope for.

    But it would be a major achievement in the world of canine science, and a landmark in the analysis of ancient DNA to show evolution, migrations and descent, much as studies of ancient hominid DNA have shown how ancient humans populated the globe and interbred with Neanderthals.

    And why care about the domestication of dogs, beyond the obsessive interest so many people have in their pets? The emergence of dogs may have been a watershed.

    “Maybe dog domestication on some level kicks off this whole change in the way that humans are involved and responding to and interacting with their environment,” he added. “I don’t think that’s outlandish.”

    Shepherding the Research

    Dr. Larson is no stranger to widely varying points of view. He is an American, but recently became a British citizen as well. His parents are American and he visited the United States often as a child, but he was born in Bahrain and grew up in Turkey and Japan, places where his parents were teaching in schools on American military bases.

    He graduated from Claremont McKenna College in California and received his Ph.D. at Oxford. In between college and graduate studies, he spent a year searching for the bed of an ancient river in Turkmenistan, and another couple of years setting up an environmental consulting office in Azerbaijan. He had an interest in science as an undergraduate, and some background from a college major in environment, economics and politics, but no set career plans. Instead, his career grew out of intense curiosity, a knack for making friends and a willingness to jump at an opportunity, like the time he managed to tag along on an archaeological dig.

    He was staying in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, and a local man who had helped him rent an old Soviet truck to explore the desert told him some Westerners were arriving to go on a dig, so he wangled his way onto one of the trucks.

    “I think everybody there thought I was with somebody else,” Dr. Larson said.

    By the time the group stopped to rest and someone asked him who he was, it was too late to question whether he really belonged. “I was a complete stowaway,” he said.

    But he could move dirt and speak Russian, and he had some recently acquired expertise — in college drinking games — that he said was in great demand at night. By luck, he said, the researchers on the dig turned out to be “the great and the good of British neolithic archaeology.” One of them was Chris Gosden, the chairman of European Archaeology at Oxford, who later invited him to do a one-year master’s degree in archaeology at Oxford. That eventually led to a Ph.D. program after he spent some time in graduate school in the United States.

    The current project began when he became fed up with the lack of ancient DNA evidence in papers about the origin of dogs. He called Dr. Dobney, of the University of Aberdeen in 2011, and said, “We’re doing dogs.”

    After receiving the grant from the council in England, he and Dr. Dobney organized a conference in Aberdeen, Scotland, to gather as many people involved in researching dog origins as they could. His pitch to the group was that despite their different points of view, everyone was interested in the best possible evidence, no matter where it led.

    “If we have to eat crow, we eat crow,” he said. “It’s science.”

    A 32,000-Year-Old Skull

    Mietje Germonpré, a paleontologist at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, is one of the many scientists participating in the dog project. She was one of a number of authors on a 2013 paper in Science that identified a skull about 32,000 years old from a Belgian cave in Goyet as an early dog. Dr. Wayne at U.C.L.A. was the senior author on the paper and Olaf Thalmann from the University of Turku in Finland was the first author.

    It is typical of Dr. Larson’s dog project that although he disagreed with the findings of the paper, arguing that the evidence just wasn’t there to call the Goyet skull a dog, all of the authors of the paper are working on the larger project with him.

    In November in Brussels, holding the priceless fossil, Dr. Germonpré pointed out the wide skull, crowded teeth and short snout of the ancient skull — all indicators to her that it was not a wolf.

    “To me, it’s a dog,” she said. Studies of mitochondrial DNA, passed down from females only, also indicated the skull was not a wolf, according to the 2013 paper.

    Dr. Germonpré said she thinks dogs were domesticated some time before this animal died, and she leans toward the idea that humans intentionally bred them from wolves.

    She holds up another piece of evidence, a reconstruction of a 30,000-year-old canid skull found near Predmostí, in the Czech Republic, with a bone in its mouth. She reported in 2014 that this was a dog. And she says the bone is part of evidence the animal was buried with care. “We think it was deliberately put there,” she said.

    But she recognizes these claims are controversial and is willing, like the rest of the world of canine science, to risk damage to the fossils themselves to get more information on not just the mitochondrial DNA but also the nuclear DNA.

    To minimize that risk, she talked with Ardern Hulme-Beaman, a postdoctoral researcher with the Oxford team, about where to cut into it. He was nearing the end of months of traveling to Russia, Turkey, the United States and all over Europe to take samples of canid jaws and skulls.

    He and Allowyn Evin, now with the National Center for Scientific Research in Montpelier, France, also took many photographs of each jaw and skull to do geometric morphometrics. Software processes detailed photographs from every angle into 3-D recreations that provide much more information on the shape of a bone than length and width measurements.

    Dr. Germonpré and Dr. Hulme-Beaman agreed on a spot in the interior of the skull to cut. In the laboratory, he used a small electric drill with a cutting blade to remove a chunk the size of a bit of chopped walnut. An acrid, burning smell indicated that organic material was intact within the bone — a good sign for the potential retrieval of DNA.

    Back in Oxford, researchers will attempt to use the most current techniques to get as much DNA as possible out of the sample. There is no stretch of code that says “wolf” or “dog,” any more than there is a single skull feature that defines a category. What geneticists try to establish is how different the DNA of one animal is from another. Adding ancient DNA gives many more points of reference over a long time span.

    Dr. Larson hopes that he and his collaborators will be able to identify a section of DNA in some ancient wolves that was passed on to more doglike descendants and eventually to modern dogs. And he hopes they will be able to identify changes in the skulls or jaws of those wolves that show shifts to more doglike shapes, helping to narrow the origins of domestication.

    The usual assumption about domestic animals is that the process of taming and breeding them happened once. But that’s not necessarily so. Dr. Larson and Dr. Dobney showed that pigs were domesticated twice, once in Anatolia and once in China. The same could be true of dogs.

    Only the Beginning

    Although the gathering of old bones is almost done, Dr. Larson is still negotiating with Chinese researchers for samples from that part of the world, which he says are necessary. But he hopes they will come.

    If all goes well, said Dr. Larson, the project will publish a flagship paper from all of the participants describing their general findings. And over the next couple of years, researchers, all using the common data, will continue to publish separate findings.

    Other large collaborative efforts are brewing, as well. Dr. Wayne, at U.C.L.A., said that a group in China was forming with the goal of sequencing 10,000 dog genomes. He and Dr. Larson are part of that group.

    Last fall, Dr. Larson was becoming more excited with each new bit of data, but not yet ready to tip his hand about what conclusions the data may warrant, or how significant they will be.

    But he is growing increasingly confident that they will find what they want, and come close to settling the thorny question of when and where the tearing power of a wolf jaw first gave way to the persuasive force of a nudge from a dog’s cold nose.

    “I’m starting to drink my own Kool-Aid,” he said.

    Profetas das chuvas e a ecologia (Diário do Nordeste)

    00:00 · 17.01.2016

    Participar do XX Encontro dos Profetas da Chuva foi uma experiência única. Foi uma manhã de grande aprendizado em Quixadá, pois tive uma verdadeira “aula magna” sobre a sabedoria popular camponesa e a cultura sertaneja. Grandes intelectuais da atualidade, como Edgard Morin (Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique de Paris), da corrente do pensamento complexo, ou Boaventura Santos (Universidade de Coimbra), defensor da ecologia dos saberes, apreciariam muito a experiência. Os relatos das previsões guardam uma riqueza e diversidade nos seus métodos.

    A maioria dos profetas é idosa e, portanto, afirma que suas experiências têm, no mínimo, 40 anos de aplicação. Seus parâmetros de análise se baseiam nos astros, nas nuvens, na observação da fauna e da flora, com testes da pedra de sal em datas específicas e nos seus próprios sentidos. Alguns se autodenominam cientistas populares ou da natureza, pois suas previsões partem de uma rigorosa observação cotidiana da mesma. É importante destacar que a maioria, além do vínculo com a terra, é também poeta e há até alguns escritores.

    Que lições os profetas da chuva podem dar aos cientistas?

    Fazendo o diálogo com Morin, podemos adiantar que eles nos ajudam a pensar de forma complexa. A ciência moderna, a título de simplificar para captar o real, muitas vezes adota práticas de recortar tanto seu objeto de análise que acaba ficando com sua análise limitada.

    Não é fácil controlar tantas variáveis como as envolvidas no clima, mas vejam como os profetas lidam com vários indicadores. É evidente que existem limitações em todas as abordagens, tanto a científica quanto a popular. Nesse momento é oportuna a prática da ecologia dos saberes. Ela não nega os avanços da ciência moderna, mas não trata o conhecimento popular como algo inferior ou folclórico.

    Ambos cumprem papéis muito importantes na nossa sociedade e o desafio é fazer esses conhecimentos dialogarem em prol de um mundo melhor. Será que existe possibilidade de complementaridade nos prognósticos meteorológicos científicos com os dos Profetas da Chuva? Em vez de competição haverá espaço para um diálogo de saberes onde existe um respeito e uma relação horizontal, cujo objetivo maior é orientar os agricultores a encontrar o momento certo para plantar?

    A Fiocruz decidiu priorizar, em seu âmbito nacional, o tema da relação água e saúde para ações de pesquisa, formação e cooperação. No Ceará, um de seus focos também será o de fomentar o desenvolvimento de tecnologias socioambientais de cuidados com a água voltado para o convívio com a seca. Está sendo elaborada uma proposta de mestrado profissional sobre saúde, saneamento e direitos humanos em rede com as universidades públicas do Nordeste e o desenvolvimento de linhas de pesquisa para a produção de conhecimento que promovam esse diálogo de saberes. Recebemos uma homenagem no encontro e assumimos a honraria como um símbolo de nosso compromisso com essa causa tão importante para o povo do sertão. Finalmente, tivemos uma manhã animada, regada de alegria e esperança de que este ano vai ser possível plantar e colher no sertão do Ceará. Para alguns até com fartura, pois estamos vivendo a pior seca dos timos 50 anos no Nordeste. A última profecia terminou com um canto de um profeta: e naquele momento, literalmente, começou a chover.

    FERNANDO FERREIRA CARNEIRO

    Biólogo e pós-doutor em sociologia

    Pangolim aparece em Nkobe: pode anunciar chuvas na província de Maputo (TVM)

    Domingo, 17 Janeiro 2016 14:27
    Escrito por  Redacção

    pangolimpt.jpg

    Um Pangolim foi encontrado na manhã deste sábado no bairro Nkobe na Cidade da Matola Província de Maputo.

    Segundo as autoridades tradicionais, o animal anuncia muita chuva e produtividade nos próximos tempos neste ponto do país.

    O mamífero foi encontrado no bairro Nkobe na Província de Maputo, o mesmo foi transportado para a residência da Rainha, onde os régulos realizaram uma cerimónia tradicional com vista interpretação da mensagem que o animal trazia para a população da Cidade da Matola.

    Realizada a cerimónia tradicional, a Rainha disse tratar-se de um animal cujo aparecimento tem explicação entre as quais se destaca a queda da chuva e cultivo de comida em abundância.

    Dirigentes da Cidade da Matola estiveram no local para testemunhar o acto e estes consideram que o cenário da seca que se vive na Província de Maputo poderá ser ultrapassado.

    Segundo as autoridades tradicionais esta é a segunda vez que um Pangolim é encontrado na urbe, o primeiro apareceu em dois mil e catorze.

    Fundação Cacique Cobra Coral na China (Isto É)

    Coluna Ricardo Boechat

    Edição 2406 – 15 de janeiro de 2016

    Esoterismo
    Na China

    A Fundação Cacique Cobra Coral — entidade que afirma controlar o clima e tem contrato com o Ministério de Minas e Energia, o Estado e Prefeitura do Rio para afastar tempestades ou fazer chover nos reservatórios da hidrelétricas — vai embora do Brasil. A médium Adelaide Scritori, que diz incorporar o cacique, estuda proposta de um grupo chinês para reduzir a poluição por lá através das chuvas. O contrato teria de ser exclusivo e foi considerado “irrecusável”. Inclui uma ajuda de custo de US$ 1 milhão por mês mais despesas fixas. A médium diz que vai “consultar o cacique” já que recusou no ano passado um convite semelhante da Austrália devido à crise hídrica que passava o Brasil.

    ‘Na África, indaguei rei da minha etnia por que nos venderam como escravos’ (BBC Brasil)

    14 janeiro 2016

    Zulu Araújo | Foto: Divulgação

    Image captionA convite de produtora, arquiteto fez exame genético e foi até Camarões para conhecer seus ancestrais

    “Somos o único grupo populacional no Brasil que não sabe de onde vem”, queixa-se o arquiteto baiano Zulu Araújo, de 63 anos, em referência à população negra descendente dos 4,8 milhões de africanos escravizados recebidos pelo país entre os séculos 16 e 19.

    Araújo foi um dos 150 brasileiros convidados pela produtora Cine Group para fazer um exame de DNA e identificar suas origens africanas.

    Ele descobriu ser descendente do povo tikar, de Camarões, e, como parte da série televisiva Brasil: DNA África, visitou o local para conhecer a terra de seus antepassados.

    “A viagem me completou enquanto cidadão”, diz Araújo. Leia, abaixo, seu depoimento à BBC Brasil:

    “Sempre tive a consciência de que um dos maiores crimes contra a população negra não foi nem a tortura, nem a violência: foi retirar a possibilidade de que conhecêssemos nossas origens. Somos o único grupo populacional no Brasil que não sabe de onde vem.

    Meu sobrenome, Mendes de Araújo, é português. Carrego o nome da família que escravizou meus ancestrais, pois o ‘de’ indica posse. Também carrego o nome de um povo africano, Zulu.

     

    Momento em que o Zulu confronta o rei tikar sobre a venda de seus antepassados

    Ganhei o apelido porque meus amigos me acharam parecido com um rei zulu retratado num documentário. Virou meu nome.

    Nasci no Solar do Unhão, uma colônia de pescadores no centro de Salvador, local de desembarque e leilão de escravos até o final do século 19. Comecei a trabalhar clandestinamente aos 9 anos numa gráfica da Igreja Católica. Trabalhava de forma profana para produzir livros sagrados.

    Bom aluno, consegui passar no vestibular para arquitetura. Éramos dois negros numa turma de 600 estudantes – isso numa cidade onde 85% da população tem origem africana. Salvador é uma das cidades mais racistas que eu conheço no mundo.

    Ao participar do projeto Brasil: DNA África e descobrir que era do grupo étnico tikar, fiquei surpreso. Na Bahia, todos nós especulamos que temos ou origem angolana ou iorubá. Eu imaginava que era iorubano. Mas os exames de DNA mostram que vieram ao Brasil muito mais etnias do que sabemos.

    Zulu Araújo | Foto: Divulgação

    “Era como se eu estivesse no meu bairro, na Bahia, e ao mesmo tempo tivesse voltado 500 anos no tempo”, diz Zulu sobre chegada a Camarões

    Zulu Araújo | Foto: Divulgação

    Pergunta sobre escravidão a rei camaronense foi tratada como “assunto delicado” e foi respondida apenas no dia seguinte

    Quando cheguei ao centro do reino tikar, a eletricidade tinha caído, e o pessoal usava candeeiros e faróis dos carros para a iluminação. Mais de 2 mil pessoas me aguardavam. O que senti naquele momento não dá para descrever, de tão chocante e singular.

    As pessoas gritavam. Eu não entendia uma palavra do que diziam, mas entendia tudo. Era como se eu estivesse no meu bairro, na Bahia, e ao mesmo tempo tivesse voltado 500 anos no tempo.

    O povão me encarava como uma novidade: eu era o primeiro brasileiro de origem tikar a pisar ali. Mas também fiquei chocado com a pobreza. As pessoas me faziam inúmeros pedidos nas ruas, de camisetas de futebol a ajuda para gravar um disco. Não por acaso, ali perto o grupo fundamentalista Boko Haram (originário da vizinha Nigéria) tem uma de suas bases e conta com grande apoio popular.

    De manhã, fui me encontrar com o rei, um homem alto e forte de 56 anos, casado com 20 mulheres e pai de mais de 40 filhos. Ele se vestia como um muçulmano do deserto, com uma túnica com estamparias e tecidos belíssimos.

    Depois do café da manhã, tive uma audiência com ele numa das salas do palácio. Ele estava emocionado e curioso, pois sabia que muitos do povo Tikar haviam ido para as Américas, mas não para o Brasil.

    Fiz uma pergunta que me angustiava: perguntei por que eles tinham permitido ou participado da venda dos meus ancestrais para o Brasil. O tradutor conferiu duas vezes se eu queria mesmo fazer aquela pergunta e disse que o assunto era muito sensível. Eu insisti.

    Ficou um silêncio total na sala. Então o rei cochichou no ouvido de um conselheiro, que me disse que ele pedia desculpas, mas que o assunto era muito delicado e só poderia me responder no dia seguinte. O tema da escravidão é um tabu no continente africano, porque é evidente que houve um conluio da elite africana com a europeia para que o processo durasse tanto tempo e alcançasse tanta gente.

    No dia seguinte, o rei finalmente me respondeu. Ele pediu desculpas e disse que foi melhor terem nos vendido, caso contrário todos teríamos sido mortos. E disse que, por termos sobrevivido, nós, da diáspora, agora poderíamos ajudá-los. Disse ainda que me adotaria como seu primeiro filho, o que me daria o direito a regalias e o acesso a bens materiais.

    Foi uma resposta política, mas acho que foi sincera. Sei que eles não imaginavam que a escravidão ganharia a dimensão que ganhou, nem que a Europa a transformaria no maior negócio de todos os tempos. Houve um momento em que os africanos perderam o controle.

    Zulu Araújo | Foto: Divulgação

    “Se qualquer pessoa me perguntar de onde sou, agora já sei responder. Só quem é negro pode entender a dimensão que isso possui.”

    Um intelectual senegalês me disse que, enquanto não superarmos a escravidão, não teremos paz – nem os escravizados, nem os escravizadores. É a pura verdade. Não dá para tratar uma questão de 500 anos com um sentimento de ódio ou vingança.

    A viagem me completou enquanto cidadão. Se qualquer pessoa me perguntar de onde sou, agora já sei responder. Só quem é negro pode entender a dimensão que isso possui.

    Acho que os exames de DNA deveriam ser reconhecidos pelo governo, pelas instituições acadêmicas brasileiras como um caminho para que possamos refazer e recontar a história dos 52% dos brasileiros que têm raízes africanas. Só conhecendo nossas origens poderemos entender quem somos de verdade.”