Arquivo da tag: Corpo

Law against anorexic models goes into effect (The Jerusalem Post)

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By JUDY SIEGEL-ITZKOVICH
01/01/2013

Print EditionPhoto by: Reuters/Amir Cohen

Models with body mass index below 18.5 may not be shown in Israeli media, on websites or go down catwalk at fashion shows.

Starting on Tuesday, female and male models who have a body mass index (BMI) of less than 18.5 may not be shown in the media or on Israeli websites or go down the catwalk at fashion shows.

The law, initiated by then-Kadima MK Rachel Adatto, aims to protect impressionable teens from eating disorders.

Every year, an average of 30 young adults and teens die of anorexia or bulimia.

The law, also sponsored by Likud-Beytenu MK Danny Danon and believed to be the first of its kind in the world, does make violations a criminal offense bearing a fine. But violators can be sued in court by interested citizens, including families whose relatives have suffered or died due to eating disorders encouraged by images of overly thin models.

While the media that publish or present illegal images are not liable, they will get a bad image for doing so; the company that produced the ad, ran the fashion show or used the overly skinny presenter can be taken to court.

In addition, any advertisement made to look with Photoshop or other graphics programs as if the model has a BMI under 18.5 has to be labeled with the warning that the image was distorted. The warning must be clear and prominent, covering at least 7 percent of the ad space.

BMI is defined as an individual’s weight in kilos divided by the square of his or her height in meters. Would-be models in campaigns and fashion shows must first obtain and show written statements from their physician stating that their BMI – up to a maximum of three months ago – was above 18.5.

If not, they can not appear.

Adatto, a gynecologist by profession who is not likely to return to the Knesset because since she joined The Tzipi Livni Party and was placed in a low position on the list, said that on January 1, a “revolution against the anorexic model of beauty begins. Overly skinny models who look as if they eat a biscuit a day and then serve as a model for our children” will no longer be visible.

Every year, some 1,500 teenagers develop an eating disorder, and 5% of those suffering from anorexia die each year. The problem even effects the ultra-Orthodox community because some haredi men increasingly demand very-thin brides.

Adi Barkan, a veteran fashion photographer and model agent who “repented” and is in the Israel Center for the Change in Eating Habits and a prime advocate for Adatto’s bill, said: “We are all affected. We wear black, do [drastic] diets and are obsessive about our looks. The time has come for the end of the era of skeletons on billboards and sickly thinness all over. The time has come to think about ourselves and our children and take responsibility for what we show them. Too thin is not sexy.”

The Second Authority for Television and Radio, which regulates commercially operated television and radio broadcasts, has already issued instructions to its employees to observe the new law.

Will we ever have cyborg brains? (IO9)

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Will we ever have cyborg brains?

DEC 19, 2012 2:40 PM

By George Dvorsky

Over at BBC Future, computer scientist Martin Angler has put together a provocative piece about humanity’s collision course with cybernetic technologies. Today, says Angler, we’re using neural interface devices and other assistive technologies to help the disabled. But in short order we’ll be able to radically enhance human capacites — prompting him to wonder about the extent to which we might cyborgize our brains.

Angler points to two a recent and equally remarkable breakthroughs, including a paralyzed stroke victim who was able to guide a robot arm that delivered a hot drink, and a thought-controlled prosthetic hand that could grasp a variety of objects.

Admitting that it’s still early days, Angler speculates about the future:

Yet it’s still a far cry from the visions of man fused with machine, or cyborgs, that grace computer games or sci-fi. The dream is to create the type of brain augmentations we see in fiction that provide cyborgs with advantages or superhuman powers. But the ones being made in the lab only aim to restore lost functionality – whether it’s brain implants that restore limb control, or cochlear implants for hearing.

Creating implants that improve cognitive capabilities, such as an enhanced vision “gadget” that can be taken from a shelf and plugged into our brain, or implants that can restore or enhance brain function is understandably a much tougher task. But some research groups are being to make some inroads.

For instance, neuroscientists Matti Mintz from Tel Aviv University and Paul Verschure from Universitat Pompeu Fabra in Barcelona, Spain, are trying to develop an implantable chip that can restore lost movement through the ability to learn new motor functions, rather than regaining limb control. Verschure’s team has developed a mathematical model that mimics the flow of signals in the cerebellum, the region of the brain that plays an important role in movement control. The researchers programmed this model onto a circuit and connected it with electrodes to a rat’s brain. If they tried to teach the rat a conditioned motor reflex – to blink its eye when it sensed an air puff – while its cerebellum was “switched off” by being anaesthetised, it couldn’t respond. But when the team switched the chip on, this recorded the signal from the air puff, processed it, and sent electrical impulses to the rat’s motor neurons. The rat blinked, and the effect lasted even after it woke up.

Be sure to read the entire article, as Angler discusses uplifted monkeys, the tricky line that divides a human brain from a cybernetic one, and the all-important question of access.

Image: BBC/Science Photo Library.

Human hands evolved for punching (Discovery News)

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Analysis by Jennifer Viegas

Wed Dec 19, 2012 06:16 PM ET

Fist

Credit: iStockPhoto

Human hands evolved so that men could make fists and fight, and not just for manual dexterity, new research finds.

The study, published in the Journal of Experimental Biology, adds to a growing body of evidence that humans are among the most aggressive and violent animals on the planet.

“With the notable exception of bonobos, great apes are a relatively aggressive group of mammals,” lead author David Carrier told Discovery News. “Although some primatologists may argue that chimpanzees are the most aggressive apes, I think the evidence suggests that humans are substantially more violent.”

Carrier points out that while chimpanzees physically batter each other more frequently than humans, rape appears to be less common in chimpanzees, and torture and group-against-group forms of violence, such as slavery, are not documented in the animals.

“Chimpanzees are also known to engage in raiding welfare in which one group largely eliminates a neighboring group, but this is not comparable in scope to the genocide that has characterized human history,” added Carrier, a University of Utah biology professor.

For this latest study, he and co-author Michael Morgan, a medical student, conducted three experiments. First, they analyzed what happened when men, aged from 22 to 50, hit a punching bag as hard as they could. The peak stress delivered to the bag — the force per area — was 1.7 to 3 times greater with a fist strike compared with a slap.

“Because you have higher pressure when hitting with a fist, you are more likely to cause injury to tissue, bones, teeth, eyes and the jaw,” Carrier said.

The second and third experiments determined that buttressing provided by the human fist increases the stiffness of the knuckle joint fourfold. It also doubles the ability of the fingers to transmit punching force, mainly due to the force transferred from the fingers to the thumb when the fist is clenched.

In terms of the size and shape of hand anatomy, the scientists point out that humans could have evolved manual dexterity with longer thumbs, but without the fingers and palms getting shorter.

Gorilla hands are closer in proportion to human hands than are other apes’ hands, but they and no other ape — aside from us — hits with a clenched fist.

The researchers additionally point out that humans use fists during threat displays. There is also a difference in body size between males and females, particularly evident with hands and arms. This, Carrier said, is “consistent with the hand being a weapon.”

Human males tend to be more physically violent than women, with men being ten times more likely to commit homicide than females in the U.S., Carrier said. But the research, nonetheless, applies to women as well.

“The bottom line is that women need to fight and defend themselves too,” Morgan told Discovery News. “Women need to fight off attackers and defend themselves from rape.”

Defending children may even help to explain human hand anatomy, since both men and women are often driven to protect their offspring, in addition to fighting with others over territory, resources and for other reasons.

“It can be argued that modern man exists in a world devoid of the evolutionary and selective pressures to which aggression was a beneficial trait,” Morgan said. “Our aggressive behavior remains, but no longer serves an evolutionary purpose.”

Social Synchronicity: Research Finds a Connection Between Bonding and Matched Movements (Science Daily)

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A new study finds that body-movement synchronization between two participants increases following a short session of cooperative training, suggesting that our ability to synchronize body movements is a measurable indicator of social interaction. (Credit: © Yuri Arcurs / Fotolia)

Dec. 12, 2012 — Humans have a tendency to spontaneously synchronize their movements. For example, the footsteps of two friends walking together may synchronize, although neither individual is consciously aware that it is happening. Similarly, the clapping hands of an audience will naturally fall into synch. Although this type of synchronous body movement has been observed widely, its neurological mechanism and its role in social interactions remain obscure. In a new study, led by cognitive neuroscientists at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), researchers found that body-movement synchronization between two participants increases following a short session of cooperative training, suggesting that our ability to synchronize body movements is a measurable indicator of social interaction.

“Our findings may provide a powerful tool for identifying the neural underpinnings of both normal social interactions and impaired social interactions, such as the deficits that are often associated with autism,” says Shinsuke Shimojo, Gertrude Baltimore Professor of Experimental Psychology at Caltech and senior author of the study.

Shimojo, along with former postdoctoral scholar Kyongsik Yun, and Katsumi Watanabe, an associate professor at the University of Tokyo, presented their work in a paper published December 11 inScientific Reports, an online and open-access journal from the Nature Publishing Group.

For their study, the team evaluated the hypothesis that synchronous body movement is the basis for more explicit social interaction by measuring the amount of fingertip movement between two participants who were instructed to extend their arms and point their index fingers toward one another — much like the famous scene in E.T. between the alien and Elliott. They were explicitly instructed to keep their own fingers as stationary as possible while keeping their eyes open. The researchers simultaneously recorded the neuronal activity of each participant using electroencephalography, or EEG, recordings. Their finger positions in space were recorded by a motion-capture system.

The participants repeated the task eight times; the first two rounds were called pretraining sessions and the last two were posttraining sessions. The four sessions in between were the cooperative training sessions, in which one person — a randomly chosen leader — made a sequence of large finger movements, and the other participant was instructed to follow the movements. In the posttraining sessions, finger-movement correlation between the two participants was significantly higher compared to that in the pretraining sessions. In addition, socially and sensorimotor-related brain areas were more synchronized between the brains, but not within the brain, in the posttraining sessions. According to the researchers, this experiment, while simple, is novel in that it allows two participants to interact subconsciously while the amount of movement that could potentially disrupt measurement of the neural signal is minimized.

“The most striking outcome of our study is that not only the body-body synchrony but also the brain-brain synchrony between the two participants increased after a short period of social interaction,” says Yun. “This may open new vistas to study the brain-brain interface. It appears that when a cooperative relationship exists, two brains form a loose dynamic system.”

The team says this information may be potentially useful for romantic or business partner selection.

“Because we can quantify implicit social bonding between two people using our experimental paradigm, we may be able to suggest a more socially compatible partnership in order to maximize matchmaking success rates, by preexamining body synchrony and its increase during a short cooperative session” explains Yun.

As part of the study, the team also surveyed the subjects to rank certain social personality traits, which they then compared to individual rates of increased body synchrony. For example, they found that the participants who expressed the most social anxiety showed the smallest increase in synchrony after cooperative training, while those who reported low levels of anxiety had the highest increases in synchrony. The researchers plan to further evaluate the nature of the direct causal relationship between synchronous body movement and social bonding. Further studies may explore whether a more complex social interaction, such as singing together or being teamed up in a group game, increases synchronous body movements among the participants.

“We may also apply our experimental protocol to better understand the nature and the neural correlates of social impairment in disorders where social deficits are a common symptom, as in schizophrenia or autism,” says Shimojo.

The title of the Scientific Reports paper is “Interpersonal body and neural synchronization as a marker of implicit social interaction.” Funding for this research was provided by the Japan Science and Technology Agency’s CREST and the Tamagawa-Caltech gCOE (global Center Of Excellence) programs.

Journal Reference:

  1. Kyongsik Yun, Katsumi Watanabe, Shinsuke Shimojo.Interpersonal body and neural synchronization as a marker of implicit social interaction. Scientific Reports, 2012; DOI: 10.1038/srep00959

When did humans get smart? Maybe a lot earlier than some thought (The Christian Science Monitor)

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A find in South Africa suggests that humans had mastered the skill of producing small stone blades – and could pass on the know-how – as early as 71,000 years ago.

By Pete Spotts, Staff writer / November 7, 2012

Small stone blades found in a cave along a rugged stretch of South Africa‘s coast have pushed back by thousands of years evidence for persistent, advanced stone-toolmaking skills in early modern humans, according to a new study.

The results suggest that by 71,000 years ago, these people had long since developed the mental horsepower to tackle production problems and pass their manufacturing techniques to subsequent generations – a lot earlier than some researchers had thought.

Indeed, to some scientists the find supports the idea that mental abilities associated with modern humans emerged when anatomically modern humans did, about 200,000 years ago, rather than resulting from a genetic mutation cropping up between 40,000 and 50,000 years ago, as others have posited.

The evidence comes in the form of a large number of stone blades that average about one inch long. The blades were excavated from successive layers in soil deposits some 46 feet thick in a cave at Pinnacle Point, on the coast some 210 miles east of Cape Town. The deposits span some 18,000 years.

The oldest bladlets were found in a layer dated to 71,000 years ago and continued to appear in layers representing the ensuing 11,000 years. The same technique was used to prepare the parent stones throughout the period, but the designs evolved over time according to the international team reporting the results in Thursday’s edition of the journal Nature.

Pinnacle Point boasts “a very impressive record” of advanced cognitive abilities in early modern humans at the time period the site covers, says Rick Potts, director of the human origins program at the Smithsonian Institution‘s Museum of Natural History in Washington.

Fleeting snapshots of such creativity appear in east Africa dating back far earlier, he explains. That creativity appears in the manufacture and use of pigments for symbolic and decorative purposes, groups separated by long distances exchanging raw materials, as well as shifts from hand axes to stone-tipped projectiles for hunting.

“You get things that fly through the air. The world has never been the same,” he quips.

From disparate sites spanning different, far earlier periods than Pinnacle Point, the evidence suggests that “cognitive capacities and the social capacities had already evolved earlier on,” he says. But invention can fizzle if populations are dispersed, making it hard for the innovation to spread, or the inventor gets eaten by some animal along the way as he heads home with his new invention.

The finds at Pinnacle Point, he suggests, highlight the role a persistent regional population with readily available shelter can play in perpetuating and improving a technology.

Pinnacle Point’s blades required following some critical steps, according to the international team led by the University of Cape Town‘s Kyle Brown and Curtis Marean with Arizona State University‘s Institute of Human Origins.

People would have had to hunt for the right kind of rock, called silcrete. They would have to gather fuel for heat-treating the rock, a process that by then had been used for 91,000 years at the site. Then comes the preparation of cores from the rock, which would be shaped into blades, chipping to make the blades themselves, then reshaping them yet again. Then comes making the wood or bone handles or shafts that would become tools or weapons. Finally, the small blades would have to be affixed to the handles or shafts.

Maintaining know-how like this over an 11,000-year span, along with the skills needed to execute the various steps, would require accurate instructions to be handed down from generation to generation and over a fairly wide region, the team says.

These days, the ability to organize and perpetuate these skills over long periods and across a region would be dubbed “executive function,” notes Sally McBrearty, a paleoanthropologist at the University of Connecticut in Storrs.

Executive function “is an essential component of the modern mind,” she writes in an assessment for Nature that accompanied the new results from Pinnacle Point.

The tiny stone blades like those at Pinnacle Point could have affected the success modern humans had as they migrated out of Africa beginning a bit earlier than the oldest dates for the Pinnacle Point blades, she writes. The research team notes that the stone mini-blades could have been used as tips for arrows or spear-thrower darts – either of which have far greater range than a hand-thrown spear. That would allow hunters, or warriors, to operate at a safer distance from their targets.

If the migrants “were armed with the bow and arrow, they would have been more than a match for anything or anyone they met,” Dr. McBrearty notes.

Books Change How a Child’s Brain Grows (Wired)

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By Moheb Costandi, ScienceNOW – October 18, 2012

Image: Peter Dedina/Flickr

NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA — Books and educational toys can make a child smarter, but they also influence how the brain grows, according to new research presented here on Sunday at the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience. The findings point to a “sensitive period” early in life during which the developing brain is strongly influenced by environmental factors.

Studies comparing identical and nonidentical twins show that genes play an important role in the development of the cerebral cortex, the thin, folded structure that supports higher mental functions. But less is known about how early life experiences influence how the cortex grows.

To investigate, neuroscientist Martha Farah of the University of Pennsylvania and her colleagues recruited 64 children from a low-income background and followed them from birth through to late adolescence. They visited the children’s homes at 4 and 8 years of age to evaluate their environment, noting factors such as the number of books and educational toys in their houses, and how much warmth and support they received from their parents.

More than 10 years after the second home visit, the researchers used MRI to obtain detailed images of the participants’ brains. They found that the level of mental stimulation a child receives in the home at age 4 predicted the thickness of two regions of the cortex in late adolescence, such that more stimulation was associated with a thinner cortex. One region, the lateral inferior temporal gyrus, is involved in complex visual skills such as word recognition.

Home environment at age 8 had a smaller impact on development of these brain regions, whereas other factors, such as the mother’s intelligence and the degree and quality of her care, had no such effect.

Previous work has shown that adverse experiences, such as childhood neglect, abuse, and poverty, can stunt the growth of the brain. The new findings highlight the sensitivity of the growing brain to environmental factors, Farah says, and provide strong evidence that subtle variations in early life experience can affect the brain throughout life.

As the brain develops, it produces more synapses, or neuronal connections, than are needed, she explains. Underused connections are later eliminated, and this elimination process, called synaptic pruning, is highly dependent upon experience. The findings suggest that mental stimulation in early life increases the extent to which synaptic pruning occurs in the lateral temporal lobe. Synaptic pruning reduces the volume of tissue in the cortex. This makes the cortex thinner, but it also makes information processing more efficient.

“This is a first look at how nurture influences brain structure later in life,” Farah reported at the meeting. “As with all observational studies, we can’t really speak about causality, but it seems likely that cognitive stimulation experienced early in life led to changes in cortical thickness.”

She adds, however, that the research is still in its infancy, and that more work is needed to gain a better understanding of exactly how early life experiences impact brain structure and function.

The findings add to the growing body of evidence that early life is a period of “extreme vulnerability,” says psychiatrist Jay Giedd, head of the brain imaging unit in the Child Psychiatry Branch at the National Institute of Mental Health in Bethesda, Maryland. But early life, he says, also offers a window of opportunity during which the effects of adversity can be offset. Parents can help young children develop their cognitive skills by providing a stimulating environment.

Life span of humans took a huge jump in past century (MSNBC)

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Researchers credit environmental improvements, not genetics, for the increaseBy Trevor Stokes

updated 10/15/2012 7:11:26 PM ET

Humans are living longer than ever, a life-span extension that occurred more rapidly than expected and almost solely from environmental improvements as opposed to genetics, researchers said Monday.

Four generations ago, the average Swede had the same probability of dying as a hunter-gatherer, but improvements in our living conditions through medicine, better sanitation and clean drinking water (considered “environmental” changes) decreased mortality rates to modern levels in just 100 years, researchers found.

In Japan, 72 has become the new 30, as the likelihood of a 72-year-old modern-day person dying is the same as a 30-year-old hunter-gatherer ancestor who lived 1.3 million years ago. Though the researchers didn’t specifically look at the United States, they say the trends are not country-specific and not based in genetics.

Quick jump in life span
The same progress of decreasing average probability of dying at a certain age in hunters-gatherers that took 1.3 million years to achieve was made in 30 years during the 21st century.

“I pictured a more gradual transition from a hunter-gatherer mortality profile to something like we have today, rather than this big jump, most of which occurred in the last four generations, to me that was surprise,” lead author Oskar Burger, postdoctoral fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research in Germany, told LiveScience.

Biologists have lengthened life spans of worms, fruit flies and mice in labs by selectively breeding for old-age survivorship or tweaking their endocrine system, a network of glands that affects every cell in the body. However, the longevity gained in humans over the past four generations is even greater than can be created in labs, researchers concluded. [Extending Life: 7 Ways to Live Past 100]

Genetics vs. environment
In the new work, Burger and colleagues analyzed previously published mortality data from Sweden, France and Japan, from present-day hunter-gatherers and from wild chimpanzees, the closet living relative to humans.

Humans have lived for an estimated 8,000 generations, but only in the past four have mortalities decreased to modern-day levels. Hunter-gatherers today have average life spans on par with wild chimpanzees.

The research suggests that while genetics plays a small role in shaping human mortality, the key in driving up our collective age lies with the advent of medical technologies, improved nutrition, higher education, better housing and several other improvements to the overall standards of living.

“This recent progress has been just astronomically fast compared to what we made since the split from chimpanzees,” Burger said.

Most of the brunt of decreased mortality comes in youth: By age 15, hunters and gatherers have more than 100 times the chance of dying as modern-day people.

What’s next?
“In terms of what’s going on in the next four generations, I want to be very clear that I don’t make any forecasts,” Burger said. “We’re in a period of transition and we don’t know what the new stable point will be.”

However, some researchers say that humans may have maxed out their old age.

“These mortality curves (that show the probability of dying by a certain age), they are now currently at their lowest possible value, which makes a very strong prediction that life span cannot increase much more,” Caleb Finch, a neurogerontology professor at the University of Southern California who studies the biological mechanisms of aging, told LiveScience in an email.

Further, Finch, who was not involved in the current study, argues that environmental degradation, including climate change and ozone pollution, combined with increased obesity “are working to throw us back to an earlier phase of our improvements, they’re regressive.”

“It’s impossible to make any reasonable predictions, but you can look, for example, in local environments in Los Angeles where the density of particles in the air predict the rate of heart disease and cancer,” Finch said, illustrating the link between the environment and health.

The study was detailed Monday in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Evolution mostly driven by brawn, not brains (University College London)

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Public release date: 15-Oct-2012
By Clare Ryan
University College London

The most common measure of intelligence in animals, brain size relative to body size, may not be as dependent on evolutionary selection on the brain as previously thought, according to a new analysis by scientists.

Brain size relative to body size has been used by generations of scientists to predict an animal’s intelligence. For example, although the human brain is not the largest in the animal kingdom in terms of volume or mass, it is exceptionally large considering our moderate body mass.

Now, a study by a team of scientists at UCL, the University of Konstanz, and the Max Planck Institute of Ornithology has found that the relationship between the two traits is driven by different evolutionary mechanisms in different animals.

Crucially, researchers have found that the most significant factor in determining relative brain size is often evolutionary pressure on body size, and not brain size. For example, the evolutionary history of bats reveals they decreased body size much faster than brain size, leading to an increase in relative brain size. As a result, small bats were able to evolve improved flying manoeuvrability while maintaining the brainpower to handle foraging in cluttered environments.

This shows that relative brain size can not be used unequivocally as evidence of selection for intelligence. The study is published today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Dr Jeroen Smaers (UCL Anthropology and UCL Genetics, Evolution & Environment), lead author of the study said: “When using brain size relative to body size as a measure of intelligence, the assumption has always been that this measure is primarily driven by changes in brain size. It now appears that the relationship between changes in brain and body size in animals is more complex than has long been assumed.

“Changes in body size often occur independently of changes in brain size and vice versa. Moreover, the nature of these independent changes in brain and body size, are different in different groups of animals.”

Researchers at UCL gathered data on brain and body mass for hundreds of modern and extinct bats, carnivorans, and primates. They then charted brain and body size evolution over time for each species. Across millions of years, most animals increased body size faster than brain size, with the exception of bats.

In primate lineages decreases in brain size marginally outpaced those in body size. Carnivoran evolution has taken yet a different course, with changes generally more strongly associated with body size rather than selection on brain size and cognition.

Given such differences, the authors believe that the predominant interpretation of relative brain size as the consequence of selection on intelligence inherently masks the often more significant influence of selection on body size.

Abstinence-Only Education Does Not Lead to Abstinent Behavior, Researchers Find (Science Daily)

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ScienceDaily (Nov. 29, 2011) — States that prescribe abstinence-only sex education programs in public schools have significantly higher teenage pregnancy and birth rates than states with more comprehensive sex education programs, researchers from the University of Georgia have determined.

The researchers looked at teen pregnancy and birth data from 48 U.S. states to evaluate the effectiveness of those states’ approaches to sex education, as prescribed by local laws and policies.
“Our analysis adds to the overwhelming evidence indicating that abstinence-only education does not reduce teen pregnancy rates,” said Kathrin Stanger-Hall, assistant professor of plant biology and biological sciences in the Franklin College of Arts and Sciences.

Hall is first author on the resulting paper, which has been published online in the journal PLoS ONE.

The study is the first large-scale evidence that the type of sex education provided in public schools has a significant effect on teen pregnancy rates, Hall said.

“This clearly shows that prescribed abstinence-only education in public schools does not lead to abstinent behavior,” said David Hall, second author and assistant professor of genetics in the Franklin College. “It may even contribute to the high teen pregnancy rates in the U.S. compared to other industrialized countries.”

Along with teen pregnancy rates and sex education methods, Hall and Stanger-Hall looked at the influence of socioeconomic status, education level, access to Medicaid waivers and ethnicity of each state’s teen population.

Even when accounting for these factors, which could potentially impact teen pregnancy rates, the significant relationship between sex education methods and teen pregnancy remained: the more strongly abstinence education is emphasized in state laws and policies, the higher the average teenage pregnancy and birth rates.

“Because correlation does not imply causation, our analysis cannot demonstrate that emphasizing abstinence causes increased teen pregnancy. However, if abstinence education reduced teen pregnancy as proponents claim, the correlation would be in the opposite direction,” said Stanger-Hall.

The paper indicates that states with the lowest teen pregnancy rates were those that prescribed comprehensive sex and/or HIV education, covering abstinence alongside proper contraception and condom use. States whose laws stressed the teaching of abstinence until marriage were significantly less successful in preventing teen pregnancies.

These results come at an important time for legislators. A new evidence-based Teen Pregnancy Prevention Initiative was signed into federal law in December 2009 and awarded $114 million for implementation. However, federal abstinence-only funding was renewed for 2010 and beyond by including $250 million of mandatory abstinence-only funding as part of an amendment to the Senate Finance Committee’s health-reform legislation.

With two types of federal funding programs available, legislators of individual states now have the opportunity to decide which type of sex education — and which funding option — to choose for their state and possibly reconsider their state’s sex education policies for public schools, while pursuing the ultimate goal of reducing teen pregnancy rates.

Stanger-Hall and Hall conducted this large-scale analysis to provide scientific evidence to inform this decision.

“Advocates for continued abstinence-only education need to ask themselves: If teens don’t learn about human reproduction, including safe sexual health practices to prevent unintended pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases, as well as how to plan their reproductive adult life in school, then when should they learn it and from whom?” said Stanger-Hall.

Putting the Body Back Into the Mind of Schizophrenia (Science Daily)

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ScienceDaily (Oct. 31, 2011) — A study using a procedure called the rubber hand illusion has found striking new evidence that people experiencing schizophrenia have a weakened sense of body ownership and has produced the first case of a spontaneous, out-of-body experience in the laboratory.

These findings suggest that movement therapy, which trains people to be focused and centered on their own bodies, including some forms of yoga and dance, could be helpful for many of the2.2 million people in the United States who suffer from this mental disorder.

The study, which appears in the Oct. 31 issue of the scientific journal Public Library of Science One, measured the strength of body ownership of 24 schizophrenia patients and 21 matched control subjects by testing their susceptibility to the “rubber hand illusion” or RHI. This tactile illusion, which was discovered in 1998, is induced by simultaneously stroking a visible rubber hand and the subject’s hidden hand.

“After a while, patients with schizophrenia begin to ‘feel’ the rubber hand and disown their own hand. They also experience their real hand as closer to the rubber hand.” said Sohee Park, the Gertrude Conaway Vanderbilt Chair of Psychology and Psychiatry, who conducted the study with doctoral candidate Katharine Thakkar and research analysts Heathman Nichols and Lindsey McIntosh.

“Healthy people get this illusion too, but weakly,” Park said. “Some don’t get it at all, and there is a wide range of individual differences in how people experience this illusion that is related to a personality trait called schizotypy, associated with psychosis-proneness.”

Body ownership is one of two aspects of a person’s sense of self awareness. (The other aspect is self-agency, the sense that a person is initiating his or her own actions.) According to the researchers, the finding that schizophrenia patients are more susceptible to the rubber hand illusion suggests that they have a more flexible body representation and weakened sense of self compared to healthy people.

“What’s so interesting about Professor Park’s study is that they have found that the sense of bodily ownership does not diminish among patients with schizophrenia, but it can be extended to other objects more easily,” observed David Gray, Mellon assistant professor of philosophy at Vanderbilt, who is an expert on the philosophy of the mind. He did not participate in the study but is familiar with it. “Much of the literature concerning agency and ownership in schizophrenia focuses on the sense of lost agency over one’s own movements: But, in these cases, the sense of ownership is neither diminished nor extended.”

Before they began the procedure, the researchers gave participants a questionnaire to rate their degree of schizotypy: the extent to which they experience perceptual effects related to the illusion. The researchers found that the individuals who rated higher on the scale were more susceptible to the illusion.

The researchers gauged the relative strength of the RHI by asking participants to estimate the position of the index finger of their hidden hand on rulers placed on top of the box that conceals it before and after stimulation. The stronger the effect, the more the subjects’ estimate of the position of their hidden hand shifted in the direction of the rubber hand. Even the estimates of those who did not experience the effect subjectively shifted slightly.

The rubber hand illusion also has a physiological signature. Scientists don’t know why, but the temperature of the hidden hand drops by a few tenths of a degree when a person experiences the illusion. “It’s almost as if the hand is disowned and rejected, no longer part of the self,” Park commented.

The researchers were surprised when one of the patients undergoing the procedure experienced a full out-of-body experience. He reported that he was floating above his own body for about 15 minutes. According to Park, it is extremely rare to observe spontaneous out-of-body experiences in the laboratory. When they invited the patient back for a second session, he once again had an out-of-body experience during the rubber hand procedure, proving that the experience is repeatable.

“Anomalous experiences of the self were considered to be core features of schizophrenia decades ago but in recent years much of the emphasis has been on cognitive functions such as working memory,” said Park.

According to the psychologist, out-of-body experiences and body ownership are associated with a particular area in the brain called the temporoparietal junction. Lesions in this area and stimulation by strong magnetic fields can elicit out-of-body experiences. The new study suggests that disorders in this part of the brain may also contribute to the symptoms of schizophrenia.

The relationship between schizophrenia and body ownership may help explain the results of a German study published in 2008 that found a 12-week exercise program reduced the symptoms and improved the behavior of a small group of patients with chronic schizophrenia when compared to a control group that did not exercise. The study also found that the exercise increased size of the patients’ hippocampus slightly — a smaller-than-normal hippocampus is a well established symptom of schizophrenia.

“Exercise is inexpensive and obviously has a broad range of beneficial effects, so if it can also reduce the severity of schizophrenia, it is all to the good,” said Park. These findings suggest that focused physical exercise which involves precise body control, such as yoga and dancing, could be a beneficial form of treatment for this disorder.

The study was partly funded by a grant from the National Institutes of Health and the Gertrude Conaway Vanderbilt Endowed Chair.

Future-Directed Therapy Helps Depression Patients Cultivate Optimistic Outlook (Science Daily)

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ScienceDaily (Oct. 20, 2011) — Patients with major depression do better by learning to create a more positive outlook about the future, rather than by focusing on negative thoughts about their past experiences, researchers at Cedars-Sinai say after developing a new treatment that helps patients do this.

While Major Depressive Disorder patients traditionally undergo cognitive-behavior therapy care that seeks to alter their irrational, negative thoughts about past experiences, patients who were treated with the newly-developed Future-Directed Therapy™ demonstrated significant improvement in depression and anxiety, as well as improvement in overall reported quality of life, the researchers found.

Results were published recently in the peer-reviewed journal CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics.

“Recent imaging studies show that depressed patients have reduced functioning in the regions of the brain responsible for optimism,” said Jennice Vilhauer, PhD, study author and clinical director of Adult Outpatient Programs for the Cedars-Sinai Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences. “Also, people with depression tend to have fewer skills to help them develop a better future. They have less ability to set goals, problem solve or plan for future events.”

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, an estimated one in 10 American adults meet the diagnostic criteria for depression.

Anand Pandya, MD, interim chair of Cedars-Sinai’s Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, said, “Future-Directed Therapy is designed to reduce depression by teaching people the skills they need to think more positively about the future and take the action required to create positive future experiences. This is the first study that demonstrates this intervention intended to increase positive expectations about the future can reduce symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder.”

When people talk only about the negative aspects of their lives, it causes them to focus more attention on what makes them unhappy, Vilhauer said. “Talking about what makes you unhappy in life doesn’t generate the necessary thinking patterns or action needed to promote a state of thriving and create a more positive future,” Vilhauer said. “Future-Directed Therapy helps people shift their attention constructing visions of what they want more of in the future and it helps them develop the skills that they will need to eventually get there.”

In the study conducted at Cedars-Sinai, 16 adult patients diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder attended future-directed group therapy sessions led by a licensed psychologist twice a week for 10 weeks. Each week, patients read a chapter from a Future-Directed Therapy manual and completed worksheets aimed at improving certain skills, such as goal-setting. Another group of 17 patients diagnosed with depression underwent standard cognitive group therapy. The study team measured the severity of depression and anxiety symptoms, and quality of life before and after treatment, using the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms, the Beck Anxiety Inventory, and the Quality-of-Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire short form.

Results include:

Patients in the Future-Directed Therapy group experienced on average a 5.4 point reduction in their depressive symptoms on the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms scale, compared to a two point reduction in the cognitive therapy group.

Patients in the Future-Directed Therapy group on average reported a 5.4 point reduction in anxiety symptoms on the Beck Anxiety Inventory, compared to a reduction of 1.7 points in the cognitive therapy group.

Patients in the Future-Directed Therapy group reported on average an 8.4 point improvement in their self-reported quality of life on the Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction scale, compared to a 1.2 point improvement in the cognitive therapy group.

Cirurgias plásticas reforçam ideal do corpo como capital social (Fapesp)

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Pesquisa FAPESP
Edição 187 – Setembro 2011

Humanidades > Antropologia
A economia das aparências

Carlos Haag

“A cirurgia plástica é um crime contra a religião e os bons costumes. Mudar a cara que Deus nos deu, cortar a pele, coser os peitos e quem sabe o que mais, vade retro.” É assim que Ponciana, personagem do romance Tereza Batista cansada de guerra, de Jorge Amado, reage ao ver a vizinha, dona Beatriz, “renovada”, com “rosto liso, sem rugas nem papo, seios altos aparentando não mais de trinta fogosas primaveras, num total descaramento, a glorificação ambulante da medicina moderna”. Imagine–se como ela reagiria hoje, ao saber da pesquisa recente do Ibope em conjunto com a Sociedade Brasileira de Cirurgia Plástica (SBCP): no Brasil a cada minuto é realizada uma operação plástica, 1.700 por dia, um total anual de 645 mil, que só nos deixa atrás dos Estados Unidos, com 1,5 milhão de cirurgias. Das intervenções nacionais, 65% são só cosméticas e as mulheres são as maiores clientes: 82%. A preferência nacional é pela lipo (30%), seguida pela prótese de silicone (21%). Nos últimos cinco anos aumentou em 30% a procura da plástica estética também pelos homens.

“O que fez a plástica virar quase obrigação, com uma demanda crescente em todas as regiões e segmentos sociais? O país é o único que oferece plásticas pelo sistema público de saúde (15% do total) e clínicas particulares têm até carnês de prestações”, diz o antropólogo americano Alexander Edmonds, da Universidade de Amsterdã e autor de Pretty modern: beauty, sex and plastic surgery in Brazil, recém-lançado nos EUA pela Duke University Press. “No Brasil não basta ser magra. A mulher tem que ser sarada, definida, sensual. Mais do que boa mãe, profissional competente e esposa cuidadosa, ela tem que enfrentar o ‘quarto turno’ da academia, correndo atrás de um corpo sempre inatingível. O maior algoz da mulher brasileira é ela mesma, que vive procurando aprovação de outras mulheres. Temos que pensar numa mulher que comporte falhas, não criminalize seu corpo por fugir aos padrões e que aproveite momentos como a maternidade sem querer voltar às pressas à forma anterior”, explica Joana de Vilhena Moraes, coordenadora do Núcleo de Doenças da Beleza da Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio (PUC-Rio) e autora de Com que corpo eu vou? Sociabilidade e usos do corpo nas mulheres das camadas altas e populares (Editora Pallas/PUC–Rio), livro que traz os resultados de uma pesquisa financiada pela Faperj sobre os padrões estéticos em diferentes camadas sociais. “Descobrimos que, se a procura do corpo perfeito é democrática, desejo de mulheres ricas ou pobres, há diferentes conceitos de beleza. Entre as ricas, qualquer sacrifício vale a pena para ganhar a magreza das modelos. Entre as mais pobres, o bonito mesmo é o corpo farto e curvilíneo das dançarinas de pagode. O que diverge entre os grupos é o sofrimento: as ricas se escondem sob roupas largas; as pobres exibem a gordura sem pudor em microshorts e tops justos.” Segundo ela, isso não impede que também malhem e fiquem nas filas dos hospitais públicos para fazer plástica estética. “A mídia, com apoio do discurso médico, estimula que as mulheres recorram a esses expedientes que evitam a constatação das mudanças da sua subjetividade, valendo-se, para isso, do estágio atual de evolução das ciências biotecnológicas, nas quais o país é respeitado globalmente.”

Curiosamente, segundo Edmonds, por muito tempo a cirurgia cosmética não foi vista como medicina legítima e para ganhar a aceitação precisou ser transformada em “cura”, aliando-se à psicologia: conceitos como “complexo de inferioridade” deram à operação um fundamento terapêutico. “O cirurgião Ivo Pitanguy foi o responsável por diluir os limites entre as cirurgias estética e reparadora, já que ambas curariam a psique. Para ele, o cirurgião plástico seria um ‘psicólogo com bisturi’ e o objeto terapêutico real da operação não seria o corpo, mas a mente”, nota o americano. Mas há consequências sobre a profissão. “A saúde é, agora, um guarda-chuva simbólico e não se restringe a permanecer na normalidade médica: é cuidar da forma, do peso, da aparência. A ‘saúde’ se estetizou”, analisa Francisco Romão Ferreira, professor do PGEBS (Programa de Pós-Graduação no Ensino de Biociências na Saúde do IOC/Fiocruz) e autor da pesquisa Os sentidos do corpo – Cirurgias estéticas, discurso médico e saúde pública. “Há uma pseudodemocratização da tecnologia que leva as pessoas a pensar que o processo é simples e com poucos riscos, e recém-formados em medicina migram para esse filão do mercado, que faz com que esses profissionais alertem para a banalização das cirurgias. É uma ruptura com a medicina tradicional que tem no corpo seu campo de ação. Essa medicina, ao contrário, se inscreve na superfície do corpo, com critérios subjetivos fora dele. A doença é criada artificialmente no âmbito da cultura, fora do corpo, mas que começa a fazer parte dele.”

“A beleza física ligou-se ao imaginário nacional e global do Brasil e é impossível conceber a identidade brasileira sem um componente estético, uma ‘cidadania cosmética’ que não significa direitos reais, mas forma de reproduzir desigualdades sociais e estruturais”, afirma o antropólogo Alvaro Jarrin, da Duke University, autor da pesquisa Cosmetic citizenship: beauty and social inequality in Brazil. É o que Edmonds chama de “saúde estética”, uma mistura de direito à saúde com consumismo. “Se o povo não realizou sua cidadania, ao menos pode se ‘refazer’ como ‘cidadão cosmético’. Os socialmente excluídos viram ‘sofredores estéticos’. A saúde sempre foi vista como bela; no Brasil, a beleza se transformou em saudável.” Para Jarrin, Pitanguy entendeu essa necessidade dos pobres por uma cidadania da beleza ao criar o primeiro serviço de cirurgia plástica popular num hospital-escola, ganhando apoio do Estado como um serviço filantrópico. “O governo é cúmplice e capitaliza indiretamente o sucesso do desenvolvimento das cirurgias de beleza”, nota. “O direito à cirurgia cosmética nunca foi diretamente autorizado pelo SUS, mas, por redefinições engenhosas do que é saúde, médicos fazem plásticas cosméticas em hospitais públicos, onde podem praticar com poucos riscos de processos por erros, desenvolvendo o ‘estilo brasileiro’, exportado para todo o mundo”, acredita Edmonds.

“Assim, as representações do corpo da mulher brasileira não são mais pela ‘verdadeira natureza perdida’, expressão da mistura das raças, mas produto da associação entre essa noção antiga e as técnicas mais modernas, uma intimidade perigosa entre prótese e carne. Num país cuja imagem é a ‘beleza natural’, a valorização das técnicas cirúrgicas dos médicos brasileiros é um paradoxo”, avalia a historiadora Denise Bernuzzi de Sant’Anna, coordenadora do grupo de pesquisa A Condição Corporal, da PUC-SP, e autora de Corpos de passagem: ensaios sobre a subjetividade contemporânea. “Mas a liberdade de construir o próprio corpo não escapa a exigências como ser jovem e a obsessão pela alegria sem escalas e em curtíssimo prazo, em que cada um é responsável pelo sucesso ou fracasso em função do culto ao corpo ou seu descuido”, avalia. “O problema não é o cuidado de si, mas fazer do corpo um território que dispensa o contato com quem é diferente de nós; não gostar de alguém pelo seu corpo.” Uma segregação com objetivos definidos. “Sofrer para ter um corpo ‘em forma’ é recompensado pela gratificação de pertencer a um grupo de ‘valor superior’. O corpo identifica a pessoa a um grupo e o distingue de outros. Este corpo ‘trabalhado’, ‘malhado’, ‘sarado’, é, hoje, um sinal indicativo de certa virtude. Sob a moral da boa forma, ‘trabalhar’ o corpo é um ato de significação como se vestir. Ele, como as roupas, é um símbolo que torna visível as diferenças entre grupos sociais”, observa a antropóloga Mirian Goldenberg, professora da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), autora de O corpo como capital e que analisou o fenômeno na pesquisa Mudanças nos papéis de gênero, sexualidade e conjugalidade, apoiada pelo CNPq.

“No Brasil, o corpo é um capital, um modelo de riqueza, a mais desejada pelos indivíduos das camadas médias e das mais pobres, que percebem o corpo como um importante veículo de ascensão social e como capital no mercado de trabalho, no mercado de casamento e no mercado sexual. A busca do corpo ‘sarado’ é, para os adeptos do culto à beleza, uma luta contra a morte simbólica imposta aos que não se disciplinam e se enquadram aos padrões.” Com direito a sutilezas geográficas. “Em São Paulo há a cultura do light, mas a roupa ainda é o adereço importante. No Rio há um desvelamento do corpo. Quando perguntaram a Adriane Galisteu como ela sabia a hora de fechar a boca ela disse: ‘Se me chamarem de gostosa na rua, sei que estou gorda’. Esse é o pensamento carioca”, diz Joana. Todos, porém, querem ser bem avaliados pelos pares. “Uma mulher gorda na classe média e alta é motivo de escárnio. Na favela, ela não precisa se livrar dos recheios para ser admirada. As mais pobres gastam mais energia em garantir direitos básicos de sobrevivência, coisas que para a mulher mais rica estão resolvidas. Pelo menos nessa relação com o corpo as moradoras de favela são mais felizes”, conta.

Em sua pesquisa, Joana descobriu que as mulheres das classes mais abastadas usam um discurso mais sofisticado, individualista, dizendo que fazem sacrifícios, como plásticas e malhação, para elas mesmas. Prova de uma relação tensa com o espelho: nunca se justifica o “trabalho” do corpo como querer ser um objeto de mais desejo. “Nas favelas, elas dizem claramente que fazem as intervenções para ‘ficar gostosas’, numa sexualidade vivida de maneira mais plena”, observa. O que não significa que as mulheres mais pobres não se percebam mais cheinhas e estejam satisfeitas com seus corpos, pois têm acesso à informação, leem revistas, veem a mesma novela que as mulheres mais ricas. “A diferença é que elas não estão aprisionadas nesse processo. Privação e disciplina são valores máximos das classes altas. Nas classes populares, a privação é associada à pobreza, e a gordura à prosperidade. Uma mulher da favela me disse que não ia ‘viver de alface’ porque iam achar que estava na miséria.”

Mas, para desgosto de Gilberto Freyre, que via a beleza brasileira na mulher de seios pequenos e glúteos grandes, Brasil e EUA, hoje, compartilham ideais corpóreos. Uma obsessão americana, o aumento das mamas está em alta aqui desde os anos 1980, a ponto de a capa da revista Time (julho de 2001) trazer a cantora Carla Perez com seios proeminentes, nos moldes das mulheres americanas, com a pergunta se o novo “busto tropical” não seria um “imperialismo cultural”. Mas há diferenças. Um estudo da Sociedade Internacional de Cirurgia Plástica Estética (Isaps, na sigla em inglês) afirma que as brasileiras querem seios maiores, mas também nádegas grandes com quadris esculpidos, em busca do corpo “brasileiro” curvilíneo. Para Bárbara Machado, chefe da equipe médica da clínica Pitanguy, a redução de seios era mais popular, mas, com o aumento da segurança das próteses e os ícones de beleza com seios maiores, a brasileira optou por mamas maiores, sem, no entanto, abrir mão das curvas.

Mera futilidade? Edmonds observa que a beleza é fundamental até no mercado de trabalho. “A aparência, cor e apelo sexual ‘adicionam valor’ ao serviço ou são critérios de seleção. Mulheres e homens atrativos têm maiores salários, pois o trabalhador vira parte do produto oferecido ao consumidor.” A cultura do corpo também é a cultura da produtividade. “A aparência fala sobre seu caráter. Se você souber gerenciar bem seu corpo, a leitura que é feita do seu caráter é que você sabe viver, é bom profissional, não é desleixado e administra sua vida de forma competente”, diz Joana. “As mulheres, porém, precisam pensar num outro modelo de pessoa bem-sucedida, porque o atual está levando as pessoas a um adoecimento extremo, já que há um acúmulo descomunal de tarefas, fruto do feminismo, que deu liberdade para a mulher trabalhar sem levar em conta que ela precisaria, também, ser linda e esbelta.” As conquistas feministas adquirem outro significado na modernidade plástica. “A tirania dos ideais de beleza foi explorado pelas feministas nos anos 1970. Mas agora a luta das mulheres para melhorar a aparência é legitimada como vitória do feminismo e já se aceita o egoísmo sadio do prazer de cuidar de si, um orgulho de exibir em público corpos desejáveis. É preciso evitar o otimismo imprudente. A plástica permite a aquisição de capacidades novas, mas o uso das tecnologias tem um efeito perverso nas mulheres: ocultar os efeitos da velhice é promover a reprodução das desigualdades”, analisa Guita Grin Debert, professora titular do Departamento de Antropologia da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp), autora da pesquisa Velhice e tecnologias de rejuvenescimento (apoiada pela FAPESP).

Entre os efeitos está o “ataque” à maternidade. “A retórica da indústria é da liberdade do destino biológico, mas permanecem as tensões entre ser mãe e continuar um ser sexual. A cirurgia acirra o conflito, pois permitiria, teoricamente, à mulher ser mãe e continuar a ter apelo sexual, corrigindo os ‘defeitos’ provocados pela maternidade no corpo pós-parto e na anatomia vaginal”, observa Edmonds. Ou, nas palavras de Diana Zuckerman, do Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Mulheres e Famílias, dos EUA: “O sonho dos homens de marketing é fazer as mulheres acreditarem que seus corpos ficam repugnantes após o nascimento de um filho”. “A medicalização do corpo pelas cirurgias não se legitima pelo discurso biológico do passado cuja beleza ideal do corpo da mulher proveria da maternidade, com o corpo arredondado, volumoso, ancas desenvolvidas e seios generosos. Agora tudo se baseia no discurso ‘psi’, que traz uma submissão à ordem médica ao afirmar o desejo de possuir um ‘corpo perfeito’ em função da autoestima. Nesse discurso, tudo se explica na ênfase da interioridade, o que leva as pessoas a justificar a necessidade de todos se adequarem a modelos estéticos por causa da autoestima”, analisa a antropóloga Liliane Brum Ribeiro, autora da pesquisa A medicalização da diferença. Essa preocupação antecipa-se cada vez mais e atinge os adolescentes, que se “preparam” para o futuro corrigindo “defeitos” de seus corpos jovens e, acima de tudo, aumentando o seu apelo sexual. Daí o crescimento no percentual de jovens operados, na faixa dos 19 anos (25% do total). “A cirurgia coloca as mulheres em competição por mais tempo e mesmo as diferenças geracionais desaparecem com mães e filhas ‘lutando’ entre si por homens, aumentando ainda mais o ‘valor de mercado’ da aparência de juventude”, nota o americano.

Se os adolescentes foram sexualizados, os mais velhos também sofrem com isso. “A cirurgia significa ‘continuar competitivo’ em qualquer idade. No passado, uma mulher de 40 anos se sentia velha e feia, pronta a ser trocada por uma mais jovem ou condenada à solidão. Agora essa mulher está no mercado competindo com a menina de 20 anos graças à plástica”, diz Edmonds. A plástica trouxe, assim, mudanças culturais intensas. “A partir dos anos 1960, a mulher feia era acusada de o ser por não se amar. Ser moderna virou cultivo da aparência bela e do bem-estar corporal. Recusar a beleza é sinal de negligência a ser combatido, um problema psíquico solucionado pela plástica”, observa Liliane. Os impactos são fortes sobre os idosos. “A cirurgia é uma forma de fugir das marcas do tempo, desnaturalizando processos normais e impedindo que a natureza siga seu destino. Transforma-se a velhice numa questão de negligência corporal, negando os constrangimentos dados pelos limites biológicos do corpo”, avalia Guita. “O envelhecimento é o monstro que a medicina tenta combater. Não é para banir cirurgias, mas não se deve restringir a velhice a um ‘desequilíbrio hormonal’, equipará-la a uma doença, uma questão estética, magicamente resolvida com operação, o que só repete a antiga forma de controle sobre a mulher”, analisa Joana.

Afinal, como observou Guita, há uma tendência a transformar a velhice numa questão de negligência corporal e os médicos se empenham em estimular os idosos a adotarem estratégias para combater as marcas do envelhecimento, negando os constrangimentos dados pelos limites biológicos do corpo. “As operações mostram a aversão ao diferente, e a cirurgia é uma tentativa de fugir das marcas do tempo, desnaturalizando processos naturais, e impedir que a natureza siga o seu destino”, avisa a antropóloga. “A aversão ao corpo envelhecido organiza as tecnologias de rejuvenescimento. Os ideais de perfeição corporal encantam a mídia, mas todos sabem que é uma imagem que jamais se pode atingir. É a materialidade do corpo envelhecido que se transforma em norma pela qual o corpo vivido é julgado e suas possibilidades restringidas.” Com o crescimento de pessoas velhas na população, o mercado se esmera em mostrar como devem os jovens de idade avançada se comportar para reparar as marcas do envelhecimento. “Essa projeção do corpo jovem na materialidade do envelhecido e a negação do curso natural impedem a criação de uma estética da velhice”, nota Guita. Mirian Goldenberg, numa pesquisa recente feita na Alemanha sobre a visão do envelhecimento, encontrou diferenças sintomáticas. “Observando a aparência de alemãs e brasileiras, as últimas parecem mais jovens e em melhor forma, mas se sentem subjetivamente mais velhas e desvalorizadas do que as primeiras. Essa avaliação equivocada me fez perceber que, aqui, a velhice é um problema grande, o que explica o enorme sacrifício que muitas fazem para parecer mais jovens”, avalia Mirian. “Elas constroem seus discursos enfatizando as faltas que sentem, não suas conquistas objetivas. A liberdade das brasileiras aparece como conquista tardia após terem cumprido seus papéis de mãe e esposa. Na nossa cultura, em que o corpo é um capital importante, envelhecer é vivenciado como um momento de grandes perdas (de capital), de falta de homem e de invisibilidade social, na contramão do que sentem as mulheres alemãs mais velhas, que valorizam menos a aparência do que as novas experiências, a realização profissional e a qualidade de vida”, conta a antropóloga.

Nem tudo, porém, são espinhos nas cirurgias estéticas. “Há um elemento democratizante nisso tudo. A plástica, ao enfatizar o corpo nu, em detrimento de roupas e ornamentos, naturaliza e ‘biologiza’ o corpo, já que, nesse estado, ele é menos legível como um ‘corpo social’”, analisa Edmonds. “Ela incita uma visão da beleza como igualitária, um capital social que não depende de nascimento, educação ou redes sociais para avançar. Quando o acesso à educação é limitado, o corpo, em relação à mente, se transforma numa base importante para a identidade, uma fonte de poder.” Para o antropólogo, é esse contexto cultural que faz o Brasil único no uso da cirurgia plástica. “É um país lembrado pela graça, pela sensualidade e dificilmente pela disciplina. Talvez, por isso, a cirurgia plástica no país não se ligue a uma alienação do corpo, um ódio das formas, mas a um ethos mais bem adaptado à indústria da beleza: o amor compulsório pelo corpo.”